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https://archive.org/details/siamhandbookofpr00grah_0 


II. M.  THE  KING  OF  SIAM. 


SIAM:  A HANDBOOK  OF 
PRACTICAL,  COMMER- 
CIAL, AND  POLITICAL 
INFORMATION 


W.  A.  GRAHAM,  M.R.A.S, 


With  go  Illustrations  and  a Map 
SECOND  EDITION 


CHICAGO 

F.  G.  BROWNE  & CO. 

LONDON:  ALEXANDER  MORING,  LTD. 

1913 


RESEARCH  LIBRARY 
C5ETTY  RESEARCH  INSTITUTE 


PREFACE 


lAM  is  a country  of  importance  to  Europe  on 


account  of  her  growing  commerce  and  because 
she  forms  a buffer  state  and  has  been  in  the  past  a 
cause  of  friction  between  two  great  world-powers. 
Her  form  of  government  and  recent  administrative 
developments  also  provide  much  that  is  of  general 
interest,  while  students  of  ethnography  or  religion 
might  hnd  profit  in  the  consideration  of  her  history  and 
institutions. 

This  book  is  intended  to  be  a record  of  so  much 
concerning  the  above  points  of  interest,  together  with 
some  others,  as  may  be  condensed  between  the  covers 
of  a small  volume.  It  is  believed  that  readers  in  quest 
of  information  concerning  Siam  may  find  in  these  pages 
that  which  they  require,  and  it  is  hoped  that  those  who 
already  know  the  country  will  allow  the  passable 
accuracy  of  such  information. 

The  writer  desires  to  express  his  gratitude  to  H.R.H. 
Prince  Damrong  for  many  of  the  photographs  which 
illustrate  the  book  ; to  R.  W.  Giblin,  Esq.,  lately  Director 
to  the  Royal  Survey  Department  of  Siam,  for  photo- 
graphs and  for  much  kindly  advice  and  assistance  ; to 
W.  Lloyd,  Esq.,  Conservator  of  Forests,  and  Luang 
Wanpruk,  Deputy  Conservator  for  valuable  information 
concerning  Siemese  forestry;  to  Dr.  O.  Frankfurter  of 
the  Royal  Library,  Bangkok,  for  advice  concerning  the 
historical  and  social  sections,  and  finally  to  W.  W.  Skeat, 
Esq.,  for  assistance  in  proof-reading,  in  compiling  the 
Index  and  generally  in  preparing  the  book  for  the  press. 


W.  A.  G. 


CONTENTS 


PART  I 

Geography — pack 

Area  and  General  Divisions  . . . . l 

The  Country  and  Towns  , . . . .13 

Climate  and  Meteorology  . . , . .31 

Science — 

Flora  . 35 

Fauna  . . . . . . . .63 

Geology  and  Minerals  . . . . .86 


PART  II 

The  Races  of  Siam — 


Racial  Divisions . 

• 97 

Population 

. 108 

Semang 

1 10 

Malays 

• 11  + 

Khmer 

. 118 

Mon 

. 118 

Yuan 

1 20 

Lawa 

1 21 

Kache 

. 123 

Chong 

. 127 

Meao  and  other  Tribes 

128 

The  Siamese 

• C?7 

Lao 

• 157 

Shan .... 

. 162 

Karien 

. 164 

Vlll 


CONTENTS 


PART  III 

PAGE 

History  . . . . . . . . .166 

Social  Organisation  . . . . . .214 

Education  ........  228 

Government  ........  236 

The  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs  ....  240 

The  Ministry  of  War  .....  243 

The  Ministry  of  the  Interior  ....  250 

The  Ministry  of  Finance  . . . . .258 

The  Ministry  of  the  Capital  ....  274 

The  Ministry  of  Justice  . ...  . . 279 

The  Ministry  of  Lands  and  Agriculture  . . 287 

The  Ministry  of  Public  Works  . . . .291 

PART  IV 

Industries  ........  296 

Agriculture  and  Planting  .....  297 

Irrigation  Works  . . . . . .322 

Fisheries  and  Fishing  . . . . . .327 

Hunting  and  Trapping  .....  341 

Forestry  . . . . . . . .347 

Mines  and  Mining  . . . . . *359 

Other  Industries  . . . . . .367 

Commerce,  Trade,  and  Treaties  ....  375 

Exports  from  Bangkok  . . . . .386 

Imports  to  Bangkok  ......  393 

Commerce  of  Southern  Siam  ....  395 

Overland  Trade  . . . . . . -397 

Customs  (Revenue)  ......  398 


CONTENTS 


Communications  and  Transport — page 

Waterways  and  Boats  . . . . . .401 

Shipping  Lines  . . . ' . . .411 

Roads  . . , . . . . ,413 

Railways  . . . . . . . . -I.15 

PART  V 

Art,  General  ........  424 

Archeology  ........  442 

Architecture  ........  454 

Music,  Dancing,  and  the  Drama  . . . .459 

PART  VI 

Religion  .........  476 

Buddhism  in  Siam  ......  488 

Buddhist  Festivals  and  Ceremonies  . , . 505 

Brahmanic  Observances  . . . . .516 

Spirit  Worship  . . . . . . .538 

Other  Religions  . . . . . . .549 

PART  VII 

Language  and  Literature  . . . . • 55i 

Bibliography  ........  577 


APPENDICES 

List  of  Animals  .......  593 

List  of  Plants  . . . . . . .600 

List  of  Minerals  604 

Trade  Statistics  .......  606 

Tables  of  Currency,  Weights,  Measures,  etc.  . 607 

Index 609 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

H.M.  the  King  of  Siam  .....  frontispiece 

A Typical  Scene  in  Central  Siam  ....  8 

A Typical  River  Scene  in  Siam  . . . . .16 

A Bangkok  Waterway  . . . . . . zz 

Within  the  City  Walls,  Bangkok  ....  23 

The  Bridge  at  Chieng  Mai  .....  23 

The  Palace,  Bangkok  {Lenz)  .....  24 

Si  Kak  Phaya  Sri,  Bangkok  (Lenz)  . . . .25 

Floating  Houses  at  Ayuthia  .....  29 

Lawa  Girls  (Lenz)  . . . . . . .122 

Meao  Women  {Lenz)  . . . . . .128 

A Meao  Girl  {Lenz)  . . . . . . .129 

Yao  Man  and  Woman  (Doi  Sawa)  . . . .136 

Yao  Women  of  Muang  {Lenz)  . . . . - ^ 37 

A Siamese  Girl  . . . . . . . .142 

A Lao  Funeral  . . . . . . . .154 

Punishment  by  Whipping  {see  page  254)  . . .154 

Funeral  Pyre  of  a Royal  Prince,  with  Cars  bringing 

Bodies  for  Cremation  . . . . . .155 

Market  Scene,  Chieng  Mai,  North  Siam  . . .158 

Lao  Women  at  Work  in  a Garden  . . . .158 

A Mon  Girl  . . . . . . . .159 

Laos  of  Laple,  Northern  Siam  . . . . .160 

Lao  Women  of  the  Ubon  District  . . . .161 

Kariens  {Lenz)  . . . . . . . .164 

Palace  at  Petchaburi  .......  206 

H.M.  the  late  King  of  Siam 


2 I 2 


xii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Interior  of  the  Government  School  ....  232 

The  Siamese  Army.  A mountain  gun  in  action  {Lenz)  246 
The  Siamese  Army.  The  Korat  Division  at  Manoeuvres 

{Lenz)  247 

Road-Bridge  in  Northern  Siam  .....  294 

Swinging  Foot-Bridge  in  Central  Siam  . . . 295 

The  Great  Central  Plains  from  the  West.  Showing  the 

Rice-flelds  of  Siam  ......  302 

Rice  Lands  in  Flood-time  {^Antonio)  . . . . 303 

Siamese  Planting  out  young  Rice-seedlings  on  irrigated 

field  .........  304 

H.R.H.  Prince  Damrong  in  a light  Bullock  Carriage  . 310 

A Kwien  ” or  Bullock  Cart.  Central  Siam  iyAntonio)  . 312 

A Plough  Buffalo.  Central  Siam  . . . • 3^  3 

Crushing  Sugar-cane  . . . . . . .318 

A Durian  Market  {Antonio)  . . . . .320 

A Lao  Fishing  Party  .......  336 

Fishing.  Chieng  Mai  District  .....  336 

Fishing  Village  on  the  Gulf  of  Siam  ....  337 

Throwing  the  Casting-Net.  .....  338 

Drawing  in  the  Casting-Net  . . . . -338 

Catching  Small  Fry  with  the  help  of  Baskets  . -339 

Catching  Mud-Fish  in  Tidal  Waters  ....  339 

Elephant  Catching  in  the  “ Keddah  ” . • ^ • • 344 

Wild  Elephants  in  ‘‘Kraal”  at  Ayuthia  . . . 345 

Teak-logging  . . . . . . . >35^ 

Teak-logging.  Elephants  easing  a jamb  of  timber  . 359 

An  Open  (or  “Paddock”)  Tin-Mine  in  Puket  . . 362 

A Royal  Barge  . . . . . . . • 37° 

Siamese  Porcelain  . . . . . . .372 

Raja’s  Boat  on  the  Patani  River  .....  404 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xiii 

PAGE 

A Fully-laden  Rice-boat  (Lenz)  .....  405 

The  Smallest  Kind  of  House-boat  used  in  Siam  . . 405 

A ‘‘  Lorcha  ” or  Cargo-boat,  Bangkok  [Lenz)  . . 408 

Some  Queer  Boats  on  the  Mehkong  River  . . . 408 

Fruit-sellers’  Boats  on  the  Menam  . . . . 409 

Through  the  Rice-fields  by  Elephant  . . . .414 

Modern  Siam.  Railway  Terminus  at  Bangkok  . .418 

Ancient  Sculpture  in  Sandstone:  Ruins  of  Pimai  . . 426 

Sculpture  in  Sandstone  representing  the  Adoration  of  the 

Buddha,  The  Sanctuary  of  Pimai  . . .427 

The  Great  Bronze  Buddha  of  Ayuthia  . . . 428 

A Temple  Door  in  Carved  Teak  ....  429 

Lacquer-ware  Caskets  for  holding  Books  . , . 430 

Covers  for  Palm-leaf  Sacred  Writings  . . . .431 

Lao-Silver  ........  434 

A Silver  Betel  Set  .......  434 

“Niello”  Silver-ware  (Siamese)  . . . . .435 

An  Illuminated  Book.  . . , . . .435 

A Lao  Girl  Weaving  .......  440 

Entrance  to  Wat  Phra  Prang,  Sawankalok  . . . 444 

Wat  Chang  Tong,  Sawankalok  .....  445 

Khmer  Ruins,  Pimai  .......  446 

Ruins  of  Sanctuary  of  Pimai  .....  447 

Khmer  Temple,  Lopburi  ......  448 

Phrachedi  at  Ayuthia  ......  449 

Stone  Image  of  Ganesha  in  Wat  Phra  Keo.  Bangkok  . 452 

A Typical  Phra  Prang  ......  454 

Phrapatum,  the  largest  Phrachedi  or  Buddhist  Relic 

Shrine  in  Siam  . . . . . . .455 

Wat  with  many  memorial  Phrachedi  covering  ashes 

{Antonio)  456 


XIV 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

‘‘Temple  of  the  Sacred-Footprint,”  Phrabat  {^Antonio)  . 457 

Siamese  Orchestra  (^Antonio)  .....  464 

Siamese  Orchestra  {Antonio)  . . . , .465 

Siamese  Corps  de  Ballet  {Antonio)  . . . .472 

A Dedicatory  Altar  .......  490 

Phra  Todong  or  Monks  on  Pilgrimage  . . . 492 

Phra  Todong  receiving  Alms  .....  492 

The  Simplest  Form  of  Temple  .....  498 

Interior  of  Wat  Chinneraj,  Bangkok  ....  499 

A Monk  {Antonio)  , . . . . . .502 

Monks  supplied  with  Food  by  a Merit-maker  . . 506 

Child  dressed  for  the  Top-knot  Cutting  Ceremony 

{Antonio)  5 1 8 

“ Sao  Ching  Cha.”  The  Scene  of  the  Swinging  Ceremony 

{Lenz)  528 

The  “ Rek  Na”  or  First  Ploughing  Ceremony  {Lenz)  . 534 

A Wayside  Shrine  in  Northern  Siam  ....  540 

Inscribed  Pillar,  now  in  the  Royal  Library,  Bangkok. 

Supposed  to  be  a Lak  Muang  ....  541 

Preparation  of  Palm  Leaf  Writing-Material  . . *576 

Map  of  Siam  ........  592 


ERRATA 


Passim,  for  Kao  ; Tammarat ; Lakon  ; Patalung ; Nakon  ; Pit- 
sanulok  ; Pet ; Takien  ; Tewada  ; fla  tii — 
read  Khao  ; Thammarat ; Lakhon  ; Platalung  ; Nakhon  ; Phitsanu- 
lok  ; Phet ; Takhien  ; Thewada  ; fid  tliii. 

22,  for  Pachim  read  Prachiin. 

for  Menam,  read  Menam  Chao  Phaya. 
for  of  read  or. 
for  Krabin,  read  Kabin. 


for  Dvarapuri,  read  Dwarapuri, 

et  passim),  for  Dvaravati,  read  Dvvarawati. 

for  Prik,  read  Phrik. 

for  Kratiem,  read  Krathiem. 

for  oars,  read  ears. 

for  extenendind,  read  extending. 

for  Prabat,  read  Phrabat. 

for  Khong,  read  Kawng. 

for  Kan,  read  Kawng. 

for  Muang  Sin,  read  Muang  Sing,  and  for  Sibsong, 
read  Sipsong. 
for  Kwang,  read  Kawng. 
for  Animisu,  read  Animism. 
for  ro,  read  or. 
for  Pratu  Pi,  read  Pratu  Phi. 
for  Tho  read  The. 
for  Ngan  read  Ngau. 
for  Cuhla  read  Chula. 
for  Peiiak  read  Pheiiak. 
for  1565  read  1765. 
for  Wien  read  Wieng. 
for  Chlulalonkorn  read  Chulalongkorn. 
for  exemption  read  exception. 
for  Maha,  Mongkut  read  Maha  Mongkut. 
for  Bali  read  Pali. 


equal  a chatiQ^  awn,  and  two  chaiig  awu  equal 
a tJiaiiaii. 


Page  3, 

line  22,  ] 

5) 

„ 31,/ 

„ 10, 

„ 17,./ 

„ 18, 

„ 14,7 

n 19. 

,,  2 a 

,,  20, 

„ I,./ 

„ 28, 

,,  36,  ) 

„ 28, 

„ 369 

n 53, 

„ 16,  1 

,,  6r, 

„ 12,  y 

„ 25, 

„ 15,  / 

,,  25, 

„ 16, ) 

„ 88, 

„ 29, 

„ 93, 

„ 21,7 

„ 95, 

„ 24,7 

„ T04, 

„ 34,7 

„ ^23, 

„ 33,7 

„ 132, 

„ 3b  ) 

„ 149, 

„ 30,7 

„ 157, 

„ 7,7 

„ 159, 

„ 8,7 

„ 163, 

,,  5,.i 

„ 177, 

„ 4,7 

„ 185, 

„ 7,7 

„ 196, 

„ 2\,i 

„ 197, 

„ 27,7 

„ 215, 

„ 9,7 

„ 225, 

- ^7 

,,  226, 

„ T9, 7 

„ 267, 

,<  30.  1 

,,  270, 

„ 27,. 

„ 271, 

„ 4( 

„ 271, 

„ 8,  ( 

„ 271, 

„ 25,^ 

27], 

" 25,  . 

[Siam] 


ERRATA 


271,  line  27,  28,  /er  read  thaiig. 

272,  ,,  29, /or  Puta  Puttha. 

272,  ,,  29  {ct  passim),  for  Sakkarat  read  Sakarat. 

274,  ,,  2,  for  vaam  read  ram. 

274,  ,,  \2,  for  itm  read  tJiiim. 

274,  „ 21,  for  vung  read  rung'. 

275,  ,,  10,  /or  Klong  read  Khlong. 

285,  ,,  14, /or  Anurawati  Arunawati. 

292,  ,,  14, /or  maintaing  renJ  maintaining. 

295,  ,,  18, /or  which  ron^:/ and  also. 

299,  ,,  2, /or  Phya  ro<n/ Phaya. 

303,  ,,  26,  for  klaiig  read  kloiig. 

310,  ,,  24, /or  tai  read  thai, 

310,  ,,  2y,  for  krat  read  khrat. 

3 1 1,  ,,  5,  for  kio  read  kliio 

321,  ,,  1(0,  for  pin  read  phin. 

324,  ,,  3, /or  Klang  read  Khlong. 

325,  ,,  10, /or  Klong  rood  Khlong. 

335,  ,,  19,  for  pong  pang,  read  phong  phang. 

351,  ,,  2, /or  Takion /rod  Takhien. 

353,  ,,  1 1, /or  Pluang  7Tnc/ Phlnang. 

363,  „ i(),  for  Sa  read  Sai. 

372,  ,,  26, /or  Martmaban  rroo?  Martaban. 

386,  „ 33  \et  passim),  for  Sappan  read  Sapan. 

397)  ))  S^yfoi'  Chinge  read  Chieng.  ' 

400,  ,,  20, /or  woJd  rode/ would. 

403,  ,,  2^,  for  Pai  read  Pliai. 

403,  ,,  ^2  (et  passim),  for  CJicow  read  Clieo. 

408,  ,,  10,  for  Cheowed  I'ead  Cheoed. 

410,  ,,  26  (et  passim),  for  Payong,  read  Payang. 

414,  ,,  II, /or  towns  rood  town. 

415,  ,,  1,2,  27,  /or  Lakhon  rood  Lakhon  Lampang. 

415,  ,,  I (0/ />oss.s'/77;), /dv’ Lamphum  7rod  Lamphun. 

420,  ,,  33, /or  eastward /'ood  westward. 

440,  ,,  25,  /dr  Pratum  read  Prathum. 

452,  ,,  21,  for  Siva  rood  Shiva.  ' ' 

462,  ,,  2)i  {ct  passim),  for  Klong  read  Kliong. 

473)  ))  -5)fo>"  Tailing,  read  TJialnng. 

473,  ,,  26, /or  Phatalung  rood  Phathahmg.  ^ 

477)  ))  27  (el  passim),  for  Pathomrna  rood  Patthomma,  and  for 

Somphotiyan  read  Somphothiyan. 

478,  ,,  6 {et passim),  for  Chakkrawartin  rood  Chakrawartin. 

484,  ,,  ],  for  he  rood  the. 

489,  ,,  J3, /dr  Wasah  rood'  Wasan.  ' 

500,  ,,  5, /or  lother  rood  other. 

508,  ,,  29, /or  eld  rood  old. 

515,  ,,  I, /dr  pervading  rood  h‘M'ading. 

527,  ,,  ly.  for  Idicnak  read  Plienak. 

541,  ,,  32,  for  Buddha  Yot  rood  Budayot. 

570,  ,,  17,  /"or' Pattamin a read  Patthomma. 


SIAM 


PART  I 

From  the  earliest  times  the  great  peninsula  Avhicli  lies 
hetween  India  and  China  and  is  now  generally  known 
as  Further  India,  has  been  peculiarly  subject  to  foreign 
intrusion.  Successive  waves  of  Mongolian  humanity 
Iiave  broken  over  it  from  the  north,  Dravidians  from 
India  have  colonised  it,  Buddhist  missions  from  Ceyloir 
have  penetrated  it  and  buccaneers  from  the  islands  in 
the  south  have  invaded  it.  Race  has  fought  against 
race,  tribe  against  tribe,  and  clan  against  clan.  Pre- 
dominant  powers  have  arisen  and  declined.  Civilisations' 
have  grown  up,  flourished  and  faded.  Thus  out  of 
many  and  diverse  elements  a group  of  nations  has  been 
evolved,  the  individuals  of  which,  Mons,  Kambodians, 
Annamese,  Burmese,  Shans,  Lao,  Siamese  and  Malay, 
fundamentally  much  alike  but  differing  in  many 
externals,  have  striven  during  centuries  for  mastery 
over  each  other  and  incidentally  over  the  countless 
minor  tribes  and  clans  which  maintained  a precarious 
existence  in  their  midst.  Into  this  inMee  of  warring 
factions  a new  element  intruded  in  the  sixteenth 
century  a.d.  in  the  shape  of  European  enterprise. 
Portuguese,  Butch,  French  and  English  all  came  and 
took  part  in  the  struggle,  pushing  and  jostling  with 
the  best  until  the  two  last,  having  come  face  to  face, 
agreed  to  a cessation  of  strife  and  to  a division  of 
the  disputed  interests  amongst  the  survivors.  Of  these 
there  were  but  three,  the  French,  the  English,  and  the 
A 


2 


SIAM 


Siamese,  and  therefore  Further  India  now  finds  herself 
divided,  as  was  once  all  Gaid,  into  three  parts.  To  the 
east  lies  the  territory  of  French  Indo-China,  embracing 
the  Annamese  and  Ivambodian  nations  and  a large 
section  of  the  Lao  ; on  the  west  the  British  Empire  has 
absorbed  the  Mons,  the  Burmese  and  the  Sbans,  while 
wedged  between  and  occupying  the  lower  middle  part 
of  the  sub-continent,  with  the  isolated  region  of  British 
Malaya  on  its  extreme  south  border,  lies  the  kingdom  of 
Siam  itself,  situated  between  4°  20'  and  20°  15^  N. 
latitude  and  between  96°  30'  and  106°  E.  longitude. 

Boundaries. — Siam  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
British  Shan  State  of  Keng  Tung,  by  the  French  Shan 
State  of  Muang  Sing  and  by  the  French  Lao  State  of 
Luang  Prabang;  on  the  east  by  the  French  Lao  States 
of  Annam  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  river 
Mehkong,  and  by  the  French  protected  kingdom  of 
Ivambodia  ; on  the  west  by  the  British  territories  of 
the  Southern  Shan -States  and  Lower  Burma  down  to 
Victoria  Point  in  9°  35'  N.  latitude,  and  on  the  south 
by  the  Gulf  of  Siam.  That  part  of  Siam  which  extends 
down  the  long  and  narrow  Malay  Peninsula  is  bounded 
on  the  east  by  the  Gulf  of  Siam  and  the  China  Sea,  on 
the  west  by  the  northern  waters  of  the  Straits  of  Malacca 
and  on  the  south  by  the  British  protected  Malay  States. 

Land  Frontiers. — The  land  frontiers  of  Siam  have  all 
been  defined  by  treaty,  and  though  accurate  delimitation 
is  still  here  and  there  necessary,  the  exceeding  vagueness 
of  the  position  of  her  boundaries  which  was  until 
recently  a disturbing  factor  in  the  politics  of  the 
country  has  now  been  eveiywhere  corrected.  The  land 
frontier  on  the  west  and  north,  from  Era  in  10°  30'  E. 
latitude  to  the  river  Mehkong  at  a point  just  north  of 
Chieng  Sen,  20°  5'  E.  latitude,  900  miles  in  length,  has 
been  delimitated  by  Anglo-Siamese  commissions,  the 
last  of  which  operated  in  1892-93.  The  line  follows  the 


LAND  FRONTIERS 


3 


crest  of  tlie  mountain  range  wliicli  forms  tlie  backbone 
of  the  Mala}^  Peniimila  and  further  north  becomes  the 
watershed  between  the  Tenasserim,  the  Tavoy  and  the 
Haung  Daya  rivers  on  the  west  and  the  Meklong  and 
its  tributaries  on  the  east.  From  near  the  source  of  the 
Thoung  Yin  river,  the  frontier  follows  that  stream  down 
its  wild  and  sparsely  inhabited  valley  to  the  point  where 
it  joins  the  Salwin,  then  up  that  river  for  60  miles  when, 
with  a sharp  turn  westwards  it  ascends  to  the  watershed 
between  the  Salwin  and  the  Meping  and  bears  away 
north  and  east,  along  the  range  and  over  the  tops  of 
giant  peaks  until  it  meets  the  Mehkong  at  the  little 
village  of  Ban  Mai. 

From  Ban  Mai,  20°  15'  N.  latitude  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Nam  Mun  river  about  15°  N.  latitude,  the  Mehkong, 
except  where  it  passes  through  the  State  of  Luang 
Prabang,  makes  between  French  and  Siamese  territory 
the  clearest  possible  frontier.  Near  the  mouth  of  the 
Nam  Mun  the  line  leaves  the  Mehkong  and,  turning 
westward,  follows  the  Pnom  Dang  RMc  range  for  some 
200  miles,  then  bends  away  south  and,  passing  between 
the  provinces  of  Pachim  and  Battambong,  reaches  the 
mountain  range  behind  Chantaburi.  This  range  it 
follows  south  by  east  for  100  miles,  parallel  with  the 
coast  and  some  20  to  30  miles  inland  ivhen,  by  a turn 
to  south  by  west,  it  meets  the  sea  near  Cape  Samit  far 
down  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam.  By  the 
treaty  which  led  to  the  final  adjustment  of  this  line 
from  the  Mehkong,  the  jorovinces  of  Malupre,  Bassac, 
Battambong,  Siemrap  and  Sisophon,  once  part  of  the 
ancient  kingdom  of  Kambodia  but  long  ago  annexed 
by  Siam,  return  to  the  former  and  thus  come  under 
French  protection.  The  greater  j)art  of  tlie  eastern 
frontier  has  been  delimited  by  successive  Franco- 
Siamese  Commissions. 

The  land  frontier  across  the  Malay  Peninsula  has  not 


4 SIAM 

yet  been  delimitated,  having  been  determined  by  treaty 
so  lately  as  1909. 

The  coast-line  of  Siam  runs  from  the  southernmost 
point  of  the  Patani  Division  on  the  east  coast  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  right  up  and  round  the  Grulf  of  Siam 
and  down  to  near  Cape  Samit,  the  south-east  corner  of  the 
province  of  Chantaburi,  a distance  of  about  1000  miles,; 
to  which  must  be  added  a strip  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  350  miles  long,  where  the  long  and 
narrow  maritime  Puket  Division  touches  the  sea  and 
separates  British  Burma  from  British  Malaya. 

Along  this  considerable  length  of  coast-line  is  to  be 
found  almost  every  description  of  shore.  At  the  head 
of  the  gulf  a shallow  dirty  sea  crawls  over  vast  mud- 
flats, left  bare  for  miles  at  low  tide  and  merging  by 
almost  imperceptible  gradation  through  mosquito- 
infested  swamps  into  the  low-l3nng  fields  and  marshes 
of  Central  Siam.  Down  the  eastern  shores  of  the  gulf 
the  asjiect  quickly  changes,  the  sea  becomes  a clear  and 
sapphire  blue,  mud  banks  give  place  to  sandy  beaches, 
and  the  land,  tliickl}^  wooded  where  not  under  cultivation,, 
rises  gentl}^  awa}^  from  the  shore  into  low  hills.  The 
coast  is  deeply  indented  and  forms  a series  of  islet- 
studded  ba^'s  of  surpassing  beauty.  East  and  south  of 
Cape  Liant  the  shore  becomes  more  rugged,  in  many 
places  bold  rocks  protrude  from  the  sea  and  the  land 
rises  steeply  up  towards  the  heights  of  the  Patat 
mountain  range  from  which  many  small  and  rapid 
streams  run  down  through  narrow  valleys  to  the  sea.. 
On  the  western  side  of  the  gulf  long  low  shores  alternate 
Avith  high  and  precix^itous  cliffs  to  AAdiich  A^egetation 
clings  as  1 )j  a miracle.  Here  clear  sparkling  AA^aters  of 
the  deepest  blue  beat  upon  golden  beaches  backed  b}" 
groves  of  AA^aving  palm-trees,  or  spout  and  bloAv  among 
overhanging  rocks  and  round  about  innumerable  islets. 
The  bays  and  inlets  on  this  much  indented  coast  form 


ISLANDS 


5 


a series  of  excellent  roadsteads,  the  four  principal  of 
which,  Chuniporn,  Bandon,  Singora  and  Patani  afford 
good  anchorage  for  vessels  of  any  size  and  in  almost 
any  number.  On  the  belt  of  Siamese  coast-line  west  of 
the  Malay  Peninsula  also,  are  several  ideal  harbours, 
once  the  resort  of  pirates  and  noAV  much  used  by  the 
swarms  of  junks  and  other  sailing  craft  which  carry 
most  of  the  trade  between  the  little  ports  of  this  region 
and  the  emporium  of  Penang. 

Islands. — The  whole  coast-line  of  Siam  is  fringed 
with  islands,  some  of  which  are  between  one  ,and  two 
hundred  square  miles  in  area,  though  the  majority  are 
much  smaller.  The  most  important  of  these  is  Chalang 
or  Iljong  Salang,  corrupted  by  Europeans  into  Munk- 
Cejdon,’  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  the 
centre  of  a flourishing  tin  mining  industry  and,  on 
account  of  its  good  harbour  and  convenient  situation, 
supposed  to  be  coveted  by  a rising  European  Naval 
Power  as  a coaling  station.  Natives  of  Telingana  on 
the  east  coast  of  India  resorted  hither  in  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era,  Arab  traders  visited  it  as  early  as 
the  10th  century  a.d.,  and  European  merchants  fre- 
quented it  from  the  middle  of  the  IGth  century  onwards. 
Moreover,  the  island  was  a cockpit  of  the  wars  between 
Burma  and  Siam.  On  the  east  coast,  Ivoh  Pungun 
and  Koh  Samui  are  the  largest  islands,  the  latter 
of  these,  in  area  about  100  scpiare  miles,  reported 
rich  in  tin  deposits,  and  producing  coconuts  said  to  be 
the  finest  in  the  world.  The  larger  islands  of  the  east 
side  of  the  gulf  are  the  Si  Chang  group,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  riA^er  Menam,  in  the  shelter  of  which  A’essels 
AAdiich  are  too  large  to  enter  the  river  discharge  and 
■receive  cargo,  and  the  islands  of  Koli  Chang,  Ivoh  Ivut 
and  Ivoh  Kong,  lofty,  precipitous  and  clothed  Avitli  the 
densest  vegetation. 

Area. — The  area  of  Siam  is  estimated  at  200,000 


6 


SIAM 


square  miles  or  about  40,000  square  miles  less  tlran 
one-tliird  of  tlie  whole  of  Further  India.  The  greatest 
length,  from  north  to  south,  is  1100  miles,  and  the 
greatest  breadth,  east  and  west,  is  510  miles. 

Main  Divisions. — In  describing  the  country  most 
writers  have  divided  it  into  two  or  more  parts,  but  no 
particidar  system,  either  geographical  or  ethnographical, 
appears  to  ha  Am  been  followed  in  doing  so.  From  both 
these  points  of  AueAv  the  kingdom  may  perhaps  be  most 
commiiiently  considered  in  four  parts,  that  is.  Northern, 
Central,  Eastern  and  Southern.  The  Northern  part 
consists  of  the  drainage  area  of  the  four  rivers  Avhich 
unite  at  about  16°  N.  latitude  to  form  the  Menam  Chao 
Phaya,  and  of  small  sections  of  the  drainage  areas  of  the 
Mehkong  and  SalAAun  riAmrs,  inhabited  chiefly  by  Laos, 
more  especially  to  the  nortliAA’-ard,  and  containing  the 
ruins  of  many  cities  famous  in  ancient  history.  The 
Central  part  includes  the  drainage  areas  of  the  Meklong, 
the  Menam  Chao  Phaya  and  the  Bang  Pakong  rivers, 
Avhich  floAv  into  the  northern  end  of  the  gulf,  the  country 
on  the  AAmst  side  of  the  gulf  as  far  south  as  KuAvi  and  on 
the  east  side  doAAUi  to  near  Cape  Samit.  This  is  the 
heart  of  the  kingdom,  the  home  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  Siamese  population  and  the  source  of  nine-tenths 
of  the  AAmalth  of  the  state.  The  Eastern  part  comprises 
the  drainage  area  of  the  Nam  Mun  river  and  its  tributary 
the  Nam  Si,  and  also  a part  of  the  drainage  area  of  the 
right  bank  of  the  Mehkong  riAmr.  The  population  of 
this  part  is  chiefly  Lao.  Lastly,  the  Southern  part 
embraces  that  section  of  the  country  AAdiich  is  situated 
south  of  the  tOAvnship  of  Ivuaau  in  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
and  includes  the  Malay  dependencies  of  Siam.  The 
population  of  this  j)art  is  composed  of  Siamese,  Malays 
and  half-breeds. 

Xorfhern  Siam, — in  area  some  60,000  square  miles, 
is  a series  of  more  or  less  parallel  hill  ranges  and  Amllejm 


CENTRAL  SIAM 


7 


lying  north  and  south.  The/ hills  in  the  south-east 
corner,  mere  gently  sloping  aclivities,  rise  gradually 
towards  the  west  and  north  until,  near  the  western 
frontier,  they  join  the  Tanen  Taring  Gyi  range  and 
tower  into  imposing  heights.  They  are  all  thickly 
covered  with  forest,  with  here  and  there  great  masses 
of  rock  standing  out  hare  against  the  sky,  or  dotted  rvitli 
the  patches  of  cleared  ground  which  proclaim  the 
presence  of  hill-trihes.  The  hills  are  drained  by  count- 
less streams  which,  small  and  insignificant  or  entirely 
dry  during  the  hot  weather,  rush  down  in  foaming 
torrents  and  cascades  when  swollen  by  the  annual  rains, 
increasing  the  volume  of  the  Salwin  and  Mehkong 
rivers  on  the  west  and  east  and  of  the  Menam  Chao 
Phaya  to  the  south.  Tlie  valley’s  vary  between  broad 
open  lands  smiling  with  crops,  through  which  clear 
streams  meander,  and  deep  shadowed  gorges  echoing 
to  the  voices  of  turbulent  waters.  Towards  the  south 
the  rivei’s  are  fringed  with  wide  banks  of  rich  alluvial 
soil  near  which  the  iiopulation  clusters  thickly  and 
where  some  of  the  most  valuable  agricultural  produce 
of  the  kingdom  is  annually  grown.  Northern  Siam  is 
divided  into  the  administrative  divisions,  or  ‘Monton,’ 
of  Payap  including  all  the  northern  Lao  provinces, 
formerly  semi-independent  states,  of  Petchaburi,  Phit- 
sanulok  and  Nakon  Sawan,  the  last  of  which,  however, 
extends  southward  well  into  Central  Siam. 

Central  Siam,  of  an  area  estimated  at  55,000  square 
miles,  consists  practically  of  one  vast  plain  stretching 
from  tlie  mountains  which  divide  Burma  from  Siam,  east- 
wards to  tlie  foot  of  the  high  ridges  marking  the  edge  of  the 
tableland  of  Eastern  Siam  and  the  confines  of  Kambodia, 
and  of  two  arms  extending  southwards  to  embrac'e  the 
head  waters  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam.  Here  and  there 
isolated  hills  rise  abruptly  from  the  jdain,  serving  to 
emphasise  the  general  flatness.  Except  indeed  for 


8 


SIAM 


tlie  slopes  of  the  containing  mountains  east  and  west, 
and  for  the  slightest  of  undulations  caused  by  the 
extra  accumulation  of  alluvium  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  banks  of  the  sluggish  rivers  which  wind  across 
it  in  a southerly  direction,  Central  Siam  is  an  uncom- 
promising dead  level.  Belts  and  patches  of  jungle 
occur  to  the  northwards  as  well  as  in  the  east  and 
west  littoral  districts,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  plain 
consists  of  wide  expanses,  thinly  clothed  with  tall 
Palmyra  palms,  dotted  with  the  clumps  of  bamboo 
which  mark  the  presence  of  villages,  or  absolutely 
treeless.  The  surface  soil  is  heavy,  clayey  and  entirely 
of  alluvial  formation  and  about  a quarter  of  the  area  is 
under  cultivation  while  the  rest,  covered  in  the  main 
with  grass  and  reeds,  awaits  a practicable  scheme  of 
irrigation  and  the  coming  of  a population,  which  two 
factors  alone  are  wanting  to  make  Central  Siam  one 
of  the  greatest  rice-producing  districts  of  the  world. 

The  plain  lies  at  a very  slight  elevation  above  the  sea 
and  is  subject  to  regular  annual  river  floods  which,  by 
the  deposition  of  vast  quantities  of  silt,  are  slowly  raising 
the  general  level.  The  whole  area  has  a gentle  slope 
downwards  from  north  to  south  and  the  land  falls  slightly 
away  at  right  angles  to  the  banks  of  the  rivers  which 
flow  on  slight  ridges  of  their  own  alluvial  accumulation. 
There  is  abundant  evidence  that  within  recent  geological 
times  the  sea  flowed  over  a great  part  of  the  plain  and 
even  now  the  northern  shores  of  the  gulf  are  advancing 
seawards  at  the  surprising  rate  of  almost  a foot  a year. 
Central  Siam  includes  the  administrative  divisions  of 
Krung  Tep  ‘ The  Heavenly  Royal  City,'  or  Bangkok, 
the  densely  inhabited  capital  of  the  kingdom  with  its 
populous  suburbs  ; Ayuthia,  also  called  Krung  Kao  or 
the  ‘ Old  Capital,’  with  its  group  of  provinces ; the 
Prachim  and  Chantaburi  divisions  to  the  eastward, 
Kakon  Chaisi  and  Ratburi  to  the  west  and  that  part 


TYPICAL  SCENE  IX  CENTRAL  SJAI^L 


f 


. I 


1 


■s'  \ 


i ■ 

I 


EASTERN  SIAM  9 

of  the  division  of  Nakon  Sawaii  which  is  not  included  in 
Northern  Siam. 

Eastern  Siam,  some  65,000  square  miles  in  area, 
consists  of  a huge  shallow  basin  contained  in  a circle 
of  hills,  together  with  a narrow  strip  of  territory  lying 
between  the  Mehkong  river  and  the  hills  which  form 
the  eastern  part  of  the  circle.  The  basin  is  tilted 
towards  the  east,  falling  gradually  away  from  a plateau 
edge  of  1000  feet  and  more  elevation  Avhich  divides  the 
eastern  from  the  central  part  of  the  country.  Except 
in  small  and  widely  separated  patches,  poverty  of  the 
soil  and  adverse  climatic  conditions  combine  to  render 
this  great  tract  indifferently  productive.  No  timber 
of  value  grows  in  the  thin  shadeless  jungle  which 
■covers  the  slopes  of  the  hills,  while  the  huge  swamps 
into  which,  owing  to  defective  natural  drainage,  the  lower 
lands  are  converted  during  the  rains,  encourage  the 
growth  of  nothing  but  grass  and  reeds  which  wither 
away  and  are  burnt  up  when  the  hot  weather  comes. 
A population  of  some  million  and  a quarter,  Laos, 
Siamese  and  Kambodians,  that  is  about  20  people  to 
the  square  mile,  inhabits  this  inhospitable  land,  wrest- 
ing from  the  reluctant  soil  crops  barely  sufficient  to 
maintain  an  existence  which,  passed  amidst  damp  and 
mud  for  one  half  of  the  year  and  in  a dry,  hot  and 
dust-laden  atmosphere  for  the  other,  is  one  of  the  most 
miserable  imaginable,  more  especially  since  this  whole 
neighbourhood  is  peculiarly  liable  to  the  visitations  of 
epidemics  of  diseases  affecting  both  men  and  cattle. 
Eastern  Siam  is  divided  into  the  administrative  divi- 
sions of  Korat,  Isarn  and  Udorn,  the  two  last  frontier 
districts  far  distant  and  difficult  of  access  and  therefore 
a good  deal  neglected. 

Southern  Siam,  about  30,000  square  miles  in  area, 
comprises  all  the  narrower  part  of  the  Malay  Peninsula 
and  is  sharply  divided  longitudinally  by  the  range 


10 


SIAM 


of  mountains  whicli  passes  down  the  w^hole  length 
of  the  peninsula,  into  two  well  defined  areas,  the  east 
and  the  west  coast  districts.  The  east  coast  district 
begins  at  Ivuwi,  where  Central  Siam  leaves  off,  with 
a mere  strip  of  land  in  places  not  more  than  ten  miles 
wide,  sloping  stee]^ly  upwards  almost  from  the  edge 
of  the  sea  to  the  top  of  the  range,  here  from  two  to 
four  thousand  feet  high,  where  runs  the  Burma  frontier. 
South  of  this  and  beyond  the  Isthmus  of  Kra,  the 
district  wddens  out  until,  at  Nakhon  Sri  Tammarat,  or 
Lakon  as  the  province  is  now  more  usuall}^  called,  a 
tract  some  seventy  miles  broad  of  alternating  hills 
and  plains  lies  between  the  sea  and  the  border  ridge 
which  now  di Andes  the  eastern  from  the*  Avestern  coast 
districts,  Burma  having  come  to  an  end  at  Victoria 
Point  a little  further  north.  Southward  from  Lakon 
the  district  narroAA^s  again,  passes  the  inland  sea  of 
Tale  Sap  at  Singora  and  once  more  spreads  out  at 
Patani.  From  here  oiiAvards  to  the  southernmost 
point  on  the  seashore  at  Tabar,  the  AvestAvard  boundar}-, 
no  longer  keeping  to  the  range  summits  but  folloAAung 
mountain  spurs  and  hill  streams  and  again  crossing 
deep  A^alleys,  marches  Avith  British  Malaya,  veers  round 
to  the  east  and  encloses  a broad  country  of  mountains 
and  valleys.  The  natural  scenery  of  this  district  is 
A^ery  beautiful,  making  a picture,  constantl}^  repeated 
Avith  minor  variations,  of  coerulean  blue  Avater,  golden 
beaches,  villages  nestling  amongst  tall  palm-trees, 
miles  of  rolling  evergreen  jungle  behind  these,  and 
at  the  back  of  all  the  magnificent  purple  mountains 
toAvering  into  the  sky.  Though  generally  of  a hilly 
character  the  east  coast  district  comprises  seA^eral 
broad  open  plains  of  Aurying  extent  AAdiere,  on  a light 
but  rich  soil  of  clay  and  sand  alluvium,  crops  of  rice 
are  annually  groAvn  and  large  herds  of  cattle  are  raised. 
Pound  about  the  toAAuis  of  Lakon  and  Patalung  the 


SOUTHERN  SIAM 


II 


largest  and  most  fertile  plains  are  situated.  In  these 
open  lands  a considerable  population  lives  and  prospers 
exceedingly  by  agriculture  and  by  fishing  in  the  seas 
AYliich  are  here  alive  with  fish  of  many  kinds.  Far 
different  from  that  of  the  people  of  Eastern  Siam, 
their  lot  is  of  the  happiest,  for  with  plenty  to  eat, 
an  ecpial  climate  and  little  or  no  disease,  they  scarce 
know  the  meaning  of  trouble.  For  purposes  of 
administration  the  east  coast  district  is  divided  into 
the  Divisions  of  Chumporn  or  Bandon,  Nakon  Sri 
Tammarat,  and  Patani. 

One  of  the  chief  natural  features  of  this  district 
is  the  inland  sea  at  Singora,  a stretch  of  shallow 
water  over  fifty  miles  long,  separated  from  the  ocean 
by  a narrow  strip  of  loAv-lying  jungle-land  but  com- 
municating with  it  through  narrow  openings  at  the 
north  and  south  ends.  The  surface  is  studded  with 
islets,  some  densel}^  wooded,  others  bare  and  precipitous, 
and  the  sea  is  surrounded  by  a fertile  but  thinly 
inhabited  shore.  The  scenery  from  the  narrow 
southern  entrance  between  green  hills  topped  with 
white  pagodas  and  past  waving  groves  of  statel}^ 
Casuarina  trees  to  a point  some  twenty  miles  to  the 
northward,  is  superlatively  beautiful.  The  lower  end 
of  the  sea  forms  the  inner  harbour  of  Singora  but 
there  is  not  much  shipping  on  the  sea  itself  as  it 
is  A’-ery  subject  to  sudden  and  violent  storms  and  in 
some  parts  is  extremely  shalloAV. 

The  AA^estern  coast  district  of  Southern  Siam  was 
shorn  of  much  of  its  area  by  the  treaty  of  1900  Avith 
Great  Britain  Avhich  proAuded  for  the  passing  of  the 
Malay  States  of  Kedah  and  Perils  from  Siamese  to 
British  protection.  It  now  consists  of  a strip  of  country 
3o0  miles  long,  backed  b}"  the  central  range  of  the 
Peninsular  mountains  and  extending  from  the  southern- 
most point  of  Burma  doAAm  to  the  confines  of  British 


12 


SIAM 


Malaya.  It  is  narrower  than  the  east  coast  district, 
has  a more  deeply  indented  coast-line,  and  more  islands 
fringing  its  shore.  The  natural  beauty  of  the  district 
surpasses  that  of  the  east  coast,  its  characteristics  being 
similar  to  those  of  Tenasserim  further  north.  Great 
mountains  sloping  steeply  up  from  the  sea,  showing 
purple  against  the  morning  sky,  bright  green  beneath 
the  midday  sun  and  grey  wdien  the  shadows  of  evening 
are  creeping  amongst  them  ; valleys  of  the  deepest 
verdure  descending  to,  and  cut  off  suddenly,  by  the 
golden  line  of  a sandy  beach ; bold  promontories  in 
a setting  of  silver  seaspray,  tall  rocks  of  limestone  or 
granite  of  every  shade  of  red  and  grey  and  of  the  most 
grotesque  shapes,  here  a tiny  white  sail  aslant  on  the 
blue  waters,  there  a brown  junk  heaving  slowly  u]p  the 
coast ; the  sight  of  all  this  rewards  the  traveller  who 
leaves  the  beaten  track  of  the  globe  trotter  and 
ventures  a day’s  sail  from  Penang  into  this  little 
known  and  unfrequented  district.  The  west  coast  has 
very  little  land  suitable  for  the  cultivation  of  rice  but 
the  soil  is  fertile  and  yields  good  crops  of  many 
other  j)i'Oclucts,  notably  pej)per.  Of  streams,  small, 
rapid  and  clear,  there  are  many,  but  there  is  no 
water-course  large  enough  to  be  dignified  by  the  name 
of  river. 

Geologically  the  country  is  the  same  as  the  east 
coast  district,  with  rather  more  frequent  appearance 
of  granite  and  consequently  greater  distiirbance  of  the 
stratified  formations.  The  population  consists  of 
Siamese,  Samsams,  Malays  and  a few  Semang  Negritos. 
Malays  predominate  to  the  south  and  Siamese  to  the 
north.  There  are  also  large  settlements  of  Chinese  who 
have  for  several  centuries  been  attracted  thither  by  the 
tin  mines.  The  total  population  may  amount  to  about 
400,000  souls.  The  whole  district  constitutes  the  admini- 
strative division  of  Puket. 


THE  COUNTRY 


13 


The  Country  and  the  Towns 

Physical  Features. — Further  India  possesses  within 
its  comparatively  small  area  three  remarkably  hue 
rivers,  one  of  the  largest  lakes  in  Asia  and  several 
imposing  ranges  and  mountain  masses. 

Siam,  however,  as  at  present  constituted,  does  not 
actually  contain  within  her  borders  any  of  these.  The 
Mehkong  river,  one  of  the  largest  in  Asia  forms  for  over 
a thousand  miles  the  eastern  frontier  of  the  kingdom. 
The  Sahvin,  almost  equal  to  the  Mehkong  in  length, 
touches  the  western  boundary  at  more  than  one  point 
but  nowhere  has  both  its  banks  in  Siam.  The  Tale 
Sap,  the  great  lake  of  Kambodia,  was  until  recently  half 
within  Siam,  but  by  the  adjustment  of  the  eastern 
frontier  now  lies  altogether  outside  her.  The  great 
mountain  ranges  Avhich  lie  north  and  south  down  the 
peninsula,  diverge  to  the  east  and  west  of  Siam,  passing- 
through  Tonquin  to  the  sea,  and  through  Burma  into 
the  Malay  peninsula,  the  latter  branch  forming  the 
boundary  between  Burma  and  Siam  for  some  distance. 

But  though  the  great  natural  features  of  the  sub- 
continent appear  to  avoid  Siam  or  at  most  to  lend  lier 
only  a part  of  themselves,  she  contains  within  her  own 
limits  many  mountain  heights  and  ranges,  many  rivers 
and  a few  lakes  which  redeem  her  from  monotony  of 
conformation  and  scenery. 

^Mountains. — The  ranges  of  Northern  Siam  varying 
from  500  to  4,000  feet  in  height,  lie  north  and  south 
like  the  bars  of  a gridiron  all  across  the  country,  here 
and  there  throwing  up  lofty  peaks  of  which  Doi-Intanon 
8,450  feet  the  highest  mountain  in  Siam,  Chieng-Dao 
7,160  feet,  Panom  Pok  7,532  feet,  Sam  Sao  5,476  feet. 
Pa  Wing  4,830  feet.  Pacha w 5,900  feet  and  Sutap 
5,500  feet,  the  iast  two  near  Chieng  Mai  town,  are 
the  most  conspicuous.  The  Korat  plateau  with  its 


14 


SIAM 


flanking  ranges,  tlie  dread  Dong  Phaya  Fai  to  loiter 
among  tire  dark  ravines  and  thickly  wooded  glens  of 
which  means  sickness  and  death,  and  the  almost  equally 
fatal  Pnom  Dang  Rek  range  in  its  own  someAvhat  arid 
way,  are  very  striking  natural  features.  The  Nakhon 
Nay  ok  and  Ivahin  hills  sweeping  southwards  from  the 
Korat  plateau  to  join  the  Patat  range,  are  as  beautiful 
as  rugged  outline,  dense  tropical  vegetation,  and  clear 
mountain  streams  can  make  them.  The  Patat  range 
itself,  sometimes  cloud-capped  and  frowning,  sometimes 
clear  and  smiling  above  the  sea  on  the  Chantaburi 
coast,  forms  inspiring  masses  of  rock  and  jungle. 
Its  highest  points  are  Kao  . Saidao  5,560  feet,  Kao 
Kmock  4,000  feet,  and  Kao-Chemao  3,400  feet.  On  the 
slopes  of  the  forest-clad  mountains  which  form  the 
western  frontier  of  Northern  and  Central  Siam  and 
which  roughly  bisect  the  southern  part  of  the  country 
there  is  an  enormous  area  of  dense  forest  jungle,  the 
haunt  of  elephant,  bison,  rhinoceros  and  other  big  game 
and  destitute  of  human  habitation  unless  the  rude  lairs 
of  wild  jungle  tribes  can  be  so  called.  Here  are  lime- 
stone cliffs  of  every  colour,  gray  granite  rocks  besplashed 
with  gleaming  waterfalls,  giant  forest  trees  rising  from 
dense  masses  of  undergroAvth  and  roped  one  to  another 
by  cables  of  monstrous  climbing  plants,  those  on  the 
highest  elevations  festooned  with  long  weepers  of  moss 
and  exaggerated  ferns.  In  the  deep  ravines  millions 
of  cicadae  make  the  air  throb  Avith  sound  all  through 
the  hot  hours  of  day  and  at  night  the  murmurings  of 
hidden  streams  accentuate  a silence  punctuated  at 
moments  by  the  clear  bell  of  a stag  or  the  trumpeting 
of  an  elephant  on  the  heights  above.  Here  nature 
reigns  supreme  and  riots  through  her  realm  in  all 
the  teeming  productiveness  of  the  tropics.  Se\^eral 
passes  through  these  mountains  give  access  to  the 
southern  parts  of  Burma  and  through  them  a consider- 


THE  COUNTRY 


15 


able  trade  is  carried  on  between  tlie  two  countries. 
The  highest  points  of  the  range,  situated  at  great  dis- 
tances apart,  are  Kao  Phra  Wan  5,800  feet  and  Mogadok 
5,750  feet  situated  east  of  Raheng  and  Nakhon  Sawan, 
Kao  Luang  4,800  feet  in  the  narrowest  part  of  Southern 
Siam  just  below  Muang  Kwi  with  Kao  Prong  4,500  feet 
and  Kao  Luong  5,800  feet,  isolated  peaks  adjacent  to 
the  main  range  and  standing  close  together  near  the 
ancient  southern  city  of  Nakhon  Sri  Tammarat. 

Rivers. — The  Menam  Chao  Phaya  with  its  tributaries 
and  branches  is  the  only  great  river  system  in  Siam. 
Indeed  to  the  Siamese  who  live  upon  its  banks  and 
travel  upon  its  waters,  this  noble  river  and  the  plains 
which  it  alternately  floods  and  drains,  constitute  Siam 
itself,  the  fact  that  there  are  other  rivers,  valleys  and 
plains  in  their  country  being  scarcely  realised  by  the 
majority.  Far  up  in  the  north  of  the  Mon  ton  Payap, 
four  rivers,  the  Meping,  Mewaiig,  Meyom  and  Menam, 
rise  among  the  mountains  which  lie  between  the  Salwin 
and  Melik ong  watersheds  and,  flowing  southward  between 
the  gridiron  hill  ranges  of  Northern  Siam,  unite,  the 
Meping  and  Mewang  at  Raheng  and  the  Meyom  and 
Menam  at  Chum  Seng,  to  form  two  streams  which  meet 
at  Paknampoh  some  250  miles  from  the  sources,  and 
together  make  the  Menam  Chao  Phaya.  Of  these  four 
rivers  the  Meping  and  the  Mewang  to  the  west,  whose 
sources  are  at  a high  elevation,  are  rapid  and  generally 
shallow  streams,  liable  to  sudden  heavy  floods,  while  the 
Meyom  and  Menam  to  the  eastward,  rising  at  a mucli 
lower  elcA^ation,  flow  quietly  in  long  deep  reaches  Avith 
regular  seasonal  rise  and  fall.  The  western  pair  are 
navigable  for  shalloAv  draft  boats  only,  through  the 
greater  part  of  their  length,  but  the  eastern  pair  are 
deep  enough  to  alloAv  the  passage  of  large  rice  boats  at 
all  times,  and  of  deep-draft  steam  launches  and  other 
vessels  during  the  high  Avater  season,  to  points  some 


16 


SIAM 


120  miles  above  Paknampob.  The  Menam  is  the  largest^ 
deepest  and  most  sluggish  of  the  series,  and  in  many 
respects  resembles  the  Menam  Chao  Phaya  below  the 
final  junction.  It  passes  through  a considerable  rice 
growing  district  and  consequently  has  much  traffic 
upon  it. 

From  Paknampoh  to  the  sea,  140  miles  as  the  crow 
flies,  the  waters  of  the  Menam  Chao  Phaya  follow  a 
number  of  tortuous  courses.  At  Chainat,  about  35 
miles  below  Paknampoh,  it  throws  off  on  the  west  side 
a branch  known  as  the  Suphan  or  Tachin  river,  which 
flows  parallel  with  the  parent  stream  to  the  sea.  and 
a branch  known  as  the  Menam  Noi  which  also  flows 
parallel  with  the  main  river,  returning  to  it  at  Ban 
Sam  Kok.  At  Ban  Takwai,  some  20  miles  below 
Chainat,  an  eastern  branch  separates  from  the  main 
river  and,  flowing  past  Lopburi  and  Ayuthia,  rejoins 
it  at  Ban  Sam  Kok. 

The  low  banks  of  the  different  channels  of  the  river 
are  all  thickly  fringed  with  bamboos  and  tall  palm-trees, 
shading  and  half  concealing  an  almost  continuous 
succession  of  long,  straggling  villages,  here  and  there 
swelling  to  the  proportions  of  a town,  and  interspersed 
with  innumerable  monasteries,  temples  and  pagodas. 
Every  now  and  . then  gaps  occur  through  which  appear 
vistas  of  rice  fields  backed  by  distant  trees  which  mark 
the  bank  of  another  channel  of  the  river  or  extending 
across  a wide  expanse  of  level  land  right  to  the  horizon. 

Thus  flowing  slowly  southward,  bearing  within  its 
turgid  depths  vast  quantities  of  yellow  silt  and  upon 
its  broad  bosom  a multitude  of  boats  of  every  descrip- 
tion, the  great  river,  at  once  a highway,  a sewer  and 
the  only  water  supply  of  some  millions  of  people,  at 
last  reaches  the  capital  and,  passing  through  it,  now 
a great  stream  navigable  for  sea-going  steamers  up 
to  1,500  tons  burthen,  continues  its  further  winding 


A TYPICAL  RIVER  SCENE  IN  SIAM,  SHOWING  THE  HOUSES 
BUILT  ON  PILES. 


1 


f' 


■i 


. . ...  . 


THE  COUNTRY 


17 


course  of  twenty  miles  to  tlie  sea.  In  the  reaches  below 
Bangkok  a different  scenery  prevails.  Bamboos  and 
tall  palm-trees  are  fewer  or  are  absent,  the  banks,  now 
even  lower  than  those  above  the  city,  being  lined  instead 
with  the  deep  green  fronds  of  the  stunted  fern-like 
nipah  plant  and  with  mangrove  extending  back  through 
miles  of  swamp  on  either  side.  Out  to  sea  between 
low-lying  shores  and  wide  mud  flats,  runs  the  great 
stream  and,  meeting  the  salt-water  performs  its  last 
natural  function,  depositing  its  burden  of  silt  upon 
a great  semi-circular  bar  which  stretches  for  many 
miles  across  its  mouth. 

With  the  exception  of  the  four  northern  rivers  which 
contribute  to  its  formation,  the  Menam  Chao  Phaya 
lias  only  one  tributary,  namely  the  Nam  Sak,  which 
flows  south  and  west  through  the  Petchaburi  and 
Saraburi  districts  and  joins  the  eastern  or  Lopburi 
Channel  a short  distance  above  Ayuthia.  The  Nam 
Sak  is  a river  of  some  200  miles  in  length  and  is 
navigable  for  boats  and  steam  launches  to  a point 
about  30  miles  from  its  mouth. 

Tlie  amount  of  water  discharged  by  the  Menam 
Chao  Phaya  varies  greatly  with  the  seasons.  At  the 
driest  time  of  the  year  the  volume  just  below  Paknam- 
]wh  is  not  more  than  150  cubic  yards  per  second,  while 
during  the  height  of  the  raiii}^  season,  it  amounts  at 
the  same  spot  to  fidly  2,000  cubic  yards  per  second. 
At  Bangkok  in  flood  time  the  discharge  reaches  3,500 
cubic  yards.  The  waters  usually  begin  to  rise  in 
May  and  continue  to  do  so  until  about  the  end  of 
October,  when  the  river  is  in  full  flood.  Subsidence  is 
gradual  and  the  lowest  level  is  reached  about  April. 
Sudden  freshets  and  high  rises  are  unknown  in  the 
Menam  Chao  Pha^^a.  For  fifty  miles  inland  the  river 
is  subject  to  strong  tidal  influence,  the  continual 
scouring  effect  of  which  is  to  make  it  uniformly  deep. 

B 


18 


SIAM 


The  great  volume  of  water  discharged  during  flood 
time  to  some  extent  overcomes  the  action  of  the  tide, 
hut  during  the  dry  weather  the  flow  extends  far  inland 
when  the  water  in  the  lower  reaches  is  brackish  and 
unsuitable  for  drinking  purposes. 

The  Bang  Pakong  river  drains  the  Prachim  Division 
east  of  Bangkok.  It  rises  in  the  Wattana  hills  close 
to  the  new  French  frontier,  flows  north,  then  west,  then 
south,  describing  a complete  semi-circle  and  falls  into 
the  gulf  of  Siam  at  the  north-east  corner.  The  river 
is  about  120  miles  long  and  for  the  last  fifty  miles  of 
its  course  passes,  with  many  intricate  windings,  through 
a low-lying  and  very  fertile  rice-growing  district.  Near 
its  upper  waters  are  situated  the  Wattana  and  Krabin 
gold  mines  and  on  its  lower  banks  stand  the  thriving 
towns  of  Prachim  and  Petriu.  About  fifty  miles  from 
its  source  it  receives  the  waters  of  its  principal  tributary, 
the  Nakhon  Nay  ok  river  which  drains  the  small  province 
of  that  name.  Other  tributaries  are  the  Sai  Cheng, 
rising  at  the  back  of  the  Patat  range  behind  Chantaburi 
and  flowing  north,  the  Taphan  Hin  and  Sai  Yai,  which 
descend  from  the  Pnom  Dang  Rek  range  on  the 
north,  and  several  smaller  streams  which  water  the 
district  encircled  by  the  main  river  and  which  join 
the  latter  at  different  points  on  its  left  bank.  Like 
the  Menam  Chao  Phaya,  the  Bang  Pakong  is  tidal  for 
many  miles  inland  but,  unlike  the  former,  it  is  subject 
to  sudden  floods  which  frequently  overflow  its  banks 
iind  extend  for  miles  across  the  flat  lands  in  its  neigh- 
bourhood. The  river  is  navigable  for  small  sea-going 
vessels  up  to  Petriu  and  for  boats  and  launches  to 
Prachim. 

The  Meklong  river  drains  the  long  valleys  which 
lie  between  the  great  western  boundary  range  and  its 
eastern  foot  hills,  flows  south  by  south-east  and  falls 
into  the  gulf  of  Siam  at  its  north-west  corner.  The 


19 


THE  COUNTRY 

main  stream  rises  not  far  from  Ralieng  and  is  about 
250  miles  long.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  Menani  Kwa 
or  ‘ The  River  on  the  Right  Hand,’  and  its  chief  tribu- 
tary, which  flows  parallel  with  it  for  many  miles,  is  known 
as  the  Menam  Kwa  Noi,  ‘ The  Lesser  River  on  the  Right 
Hand.’  It  is  rapid,  shallow,  fairly  straight  and  navi- 
gable only  for  small  boats.  For  the  most  part  it  flows 
through  a wild  uninhabited  country,  but  in  its  lower 
reaches  it  passes  the  towns  of  Ivanburi,  Ratburi,  and 
Samut  Song  Kram  and  has  many  villages  on  its  banhs 
in  the  parts  which  lie  between  those  places.  Its  waters 
are  clear  and  its  bed  is  a yellow  sand,  very  different 
from  the  soft  grey  mud  of  the  Menam  Chao  Phaya.  It 
is  subject  to  sudden  floods  of  short  duration,  and  on 
account  of  its  steep  slope  is  very  little  affected  by  the 
tides. 

Both  the  Bang  Pakong  and  Meklong  rivers  are 
connected  with  the  Menani  Chao  Phaya  by  a series  of 
parallel  canals  which  cross  the  Central  Plain  at  right 
angles  to  the  river  courses.  These,  as  their  names, 
Palisi  Charoen  (‘Gain  and  Prosperity’);  Dainneun 
Saduak  (‘the  Comfortable  Kingsway ’),  etc.,  imply,  were 
made  as  means  of  communication  between  the  capital 
and  outlying  districts  and  towns  which  were  otherwise 
difficult  of  access,  and  they  form  good  highways  in  a 
country  wdiere  roads  are  impracticable  by  reason  of 
floods  and  the  difficulty  of  procuring  road-metal.  The 
main  canals  have  all  been  made  during  the  last  120 
years,  and  many  of  them  having  in  course  of  time 
become  much  silted  up,  have  recently  been  re-excavated. 

The  Mehkong  river,  as  has  already  been  said,  does 
not  now"  actually  pass  through  any  part  of  Siam  but  it 
is  of  importance  to  her  as  a frontier.  It  is  also  deserv- 
ing of  notice  as  the  recipient  of  the  Xam  Mun,  a river 
wdiich,  w"ith  its  tributaries,  drains  almost  all  Eastern 
Siam.  The  ruined  city  of  M^ieng  Chan,  and  small  modern 


20 


SIAM 


towns  of  Nawng  Ivai  and  Cliieng  Kan  are  almost  the 
only  Siamese  places  of  any  interest  or  importance  on 
the  banks  of  the  Mehkong.  The  river,  though  a magni- 
ficent stream  with  an  enormous  discharge  and  with 
long  reaches  of  deep,  quiet  water,  is  rendered  difficult 
of  navigation  by  the  presence  of  numerous  rapids. 
Efforts  have  been  made  by  the  French  to  remove  these 
obstacles  but  hitherto  with  very  indifferent  results,  and 
the  Mehkong  for  purposes  of  commerce  seems  practically 
useless.  The  Nam  Mun,  a river  more  than  300  miles 
in  length,  rises  on  the  jDlateau  near  Korat  and  flows 
east  through  the  wide  basin  of  Eastern  Siam  to  join  the 
Mehkong  in  latitude  15°  20',  which  it  does  by  passing 
through  a narrow  ojDening  in  the  low  hills  which  skirt 
the  left  bank  of  the  main  river.  It  has  a large  number 
of  tributaries,  one  of  which,  the  Nam  Si,  is  of  great 
length.  The  whole  system  is  subject  to  high  floods 
during  the  wet  season,  while  in  the  dry  weather  it 
contains  almost  no  water  at  all,  and  hence  it  is  not  of 
much  value  as  a means  of  communication. 

Other  Siamese  rivers  of  more  than  insignificant 
proportions  are  the  Nam  Koh  and  Nam  Ing,  northern 
tributaries  of  the  Mehkong,  and  the  Bandon  and  Patani 
rivers  of  Southern  Siam.  The  Bandon  river  is  of  some 
importance  as  a waterway  for  valuable  timber  extracted 
from  the  forests  through  which  it  flows.  The  Patani, 
a broad,  shallow,  and  rapid  stream  about  120  miles  long,, 
drains  the  seven  small  states  which  constitute  the 
Patani  Division  or  Monton,  passes  through  a beautiful 
and  fairly  well  poprdated  country,  and  is  reputed  to 
contain  deposits  of  gold.  It  is  ver}^  little  subject  to 
tidal  influence. 

Lakes. — The  lakes  of  Siam  are  few,  and  if  the  inland 
sea  of  Singora  be  excepted,  of  small  size  and  of  little 
importance.  In  the  northern  part  of  Eastern  Siam 
there  are  several  shallow  meres  of  wide  extent,  dry  or 


THE  TOAVNS 


21 


almost  dry  during  a part  of  the  year,  and  at  other  times 
reed-grown  swamps,  the  haunts  of  innumerahle  pelicans 
and  other  water  birds.  The  best  known  of  these  meres 
is  Naung  Han  near  the  village  of  Ramarat  and  connected 
with  the  Mehkong  river  by  a short  stream,  the  Nam 
Kun.  In  Northern  Siam,  not  far  from  Chieng  Rai, 
there  is  a small  district  of  lakes  and  tarns  lying  amidst 
high  mountains,  the  largest  of  which  is  about  three 
miles  long  by  one  wide.  The  district  is  not  without 
scenic  beauty  of  the  typical  teak-forest  character,  but 
is  very  sparsely  inhabited.  West  of  Ulai  Tani  and 
again  west  of  Ratburi  small  lakes  lie  at  the  foot  of  the 
western  mountain  range  in  remote  jungle  districts  where 
man  seldom  ventures. 

Towns, — In  Siamese  there  is  no  word  exactly  equiva- 
lent to  the  English  word  ‘ town,’  the  word  ^ Ban'  meaning, 
as  did  formerly  the  English  word  ‘village,’  any  collection 
of  houses  from  a single  homestead  upwards,  being  the 
only  word  in  the  language  which  belongs  solely  to  the 
liabitations  of  men.  Many  words  are  used,  however,  to 
denote  settlements  which  are  evidently  of  more  import- 
ance than  mere  villages,  either  because  of  their  size  or 
for  other  reasons,  and  of  these  the  most  usual  are  ‘ lloa 
Muang'  or  briefly  ' Muanrj'  the  head  or  centre  of  a 
province,  ^Xakhon,'  from  the  Sanskrit  or  Pali  ^Kagara' 
meaning  a country,  ‘ Wieng'  the  Lao  word  for  a fortified 
place,  and  ‘ Krung  ’ meaning  a capital. 

Settlements  dignified  with  these  names  may,  however, 
witli  the  exception  of  'Krung,'  be  quite  small  and 
insignificant  places,  owing  their  superior  considera- 
tion to  tradition  of  power  or  greatness,  or  to  their 
selection  as  modern  administrative  headquarters,  while 
others,  still  known  as  mere  'Ban,'  are  large  and  populous 
communities.  It  is  not  easy,  therefore,  to  decide  what  to 
call  towns  and  what  villages  in  Siam,  the  more  so  since 
the  average  English  dictionary  defines  a town  as  a place 


22 


SIAM 


larger  than  a village  and  a village  as  a place  smaller 
than  a town.  If  no  place  with  less  than  10,000  inhabi- 
tants is  a town,  then  there  are  not  half  a dozen  towns 
in  the  country.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  presence  of 
a market  denotes  a town,  then  there  are  practically  no 
villages  in  Siam. 

There  can,  however,  be  no  doubt  about  the  Capital, 
for  Bangkok  is  not  only  a town  but  is  certainly  the 
largest  city  in  all  Further  India,  having  a population  of 
about  630,000.  It  is  situated  astride  the  river  Menam 
Chao  Phaya  some  twenty  miles  from  its  mouth  and 
covers  an  area  of  about  fifteen  square  miles.  With 
the  exception  of  London  there  is  no  other  capital  in 
the  world,  the  population  of  which  bears  so  large  a 
jjroportion  to  that  of  the  country  of  which  it  is  the 
head,  for  Bangkok  contains  nearly  one  ninth  part 
of  the  people  of  Siam.  Up  to  a few  years  ago  Bangkok 
resembled  nothing  so. much  as  a huge  wen  which  had 
been  growing  steadily  for  a century  and  a quarter, 
absorbing  the  life  and  the  substance  of  the  country, 
taking  the  revenues  of  its  outlying  provinces  to  pay  for 
its  own  embellishment,  and  the  best  blood  of  the 
peasantry  to  fill  the  households  of  its  nobles,  and  to 
rot  in  the  insanitary  barracks  of  its  naval  and  military 
establishments.  At  the  present  day,  however,  this  is 
no  longer  the  case.  With  the  abolition  of  slavery  the 
nobles  have  disbanded  the  greater  j)art  of  their  follow- 
ing ; new  laws  have  immensely  improved  the  conditions 
of  military  service,  while  a policy  of  partial  decentralisa- 
tion of  government,  and  above  all  of  railwa}"  extension, 
has  brought  the  outlying  parts  of  the  country  into  a 
prominence  not  formerly  imaginable,  and  is  teaching 
the  upper  and  the  official  classes  that  life  may  be  made 
endurable  elsewhere  than  in  the  beloved  capital.  Even 
so,  however,  Bangkok  still  overshadows  the  rest  of  the 
country  to  an  extraordinary  extent  and  both  Siamese 


BANGKOK  WATERWAY, 


WITHIN  THE  CITY  WALLS,  BANGKOK 


BRIDGE  AT  CHIENGMAI. 
(Seep.  27.) 


THE  TOWNS 


23 


and  foreign  residents  and  visitors  are  still  too  apt  to 
tliink  that  to  all  intents  and  purposes  the  capital  is  the 
only  part  of  the  country  which  counts. 

Prior  to  1769,  Bangkok  was  an  unimportant  place 
near  which  stood  one  of  the  forts  intended  to  guard 
the  riverine  approaches  to  Ayuthia,  the  former  capital. 
In  or  about  that  year,  however,  it  was  selected  as  the 
headquarters  of  the  army  engaged  in  recovering  Siam 
from  the  Burmese,  from  which  time  it  grew  rapidly 
and  soon  became  the  largest  town  in  the  country  and 
the  seat  of  government  of  the  re-organised  state.  In 
1782  His  Majesty  Somdet  Phra  Puta  Yot  Fa  definitely 
fixed  upon  the  place  as  his  capital  and  since  that  date, 
indissolubly  connected  with  the  fortunes  of  the  dynasty 
he  founded,  it  has  prospered  until,  far  surpassing  all 
former  capitals,  it  has  become  the  greatest  city  the 
country  has  ever  at  any  time  possessed.  In  its  earlier 
years  Bangkok  was  built  very  largely  upon,  or  close 
beside,  the  river  and  the  innumerable  creeks  and  canals 
which  were  excavated  with  some  degree  of  system 
at  A^arying  distances  surrounding  the  Royal  Palace. 
The  houses  were  either  constructed  on  floating  pontoons 
moored  at  the  sides  of  the  Avater-courses,  or  on  high 
piles  driven  into  the  mud  banks.  The  Royal  palaces 
occupied  a large  area  in  a bend  on  the  east  bank  of 
the  iTA’-er  and  the  best  land  sites  all  round  these  Avere 
devoted  to  the  erection  of  pagodas  and  temples  mostly 
of  briclvAvork  and  many  of  them  of  beautiful  and  elaborate 
design.  The  dAvelling-houses  ay  ere  built  of  light  material 
and  usually  had  thatched  roofs,  those  of  the  princes 
and  higher  nobles  being  generally,  hoAvever,  more  solid 
structures  of  teak- wood,  often  richly  caiwed,  and  Avith 
high  roofs  made  of  tiles.  There  Avere  x^ractically  no 
roadways,  all  communication  being  by  AAuter.  About 
the  year  1880,  however,  the  necessity  for  roads  began 
to  make  itself  felt  and  there  aaus  constructed  a street 


24 


SIAM 


some  five  miles  long  connecting  tlie  neighbourhood 
of  the  Royal  palaces  with  the  foreign  consulates  and 
European  dwellings  and  places  of  business  which 
lined  the  east  bank  of  the  river  below  the  city.  Since 
that  time  the  making  of  roads  has  continued,  slowly 
at  first  but  more  rapidly  later,  so  that  to-day  there  are 
some  eighty  miles  of  well-laid  out  streets,  crossing  the 
old  canals  at  a thousand  points  and  lined  with  neat 
brick-built  houses  in  which  the  erstwhile  riparian 
population  now  resides.  The  streets  are  as  a rule 
well  paved  and  metalled,  and  are  kept  fairly  clean, 
those  nearest  to  the  Palace  being  in  the  best  condition 
as  being  the  more  likely  to  catch  the  eye  of  Royalty. 
They  are  continually  crowded  with  traffic  of  all  kinds, 
thousands  of  jinrickshaws,  hundreds  of  horsed  carriages 
and  motor  vehicles  continually  passing  to  and  fro. 
Here  and  there  a row  of  the  older  thatched  dwellings 
persists  and  a few  floating  houses  still  cling  to  the 
banks  of  the  river  and  the  principal  creeks,  but  these 
are  doomed  to  early  extinction.  The  picturesque 
castellated  fortifications  of  the  city  are  going  also, 
the  gateways  have  nearly  all  been  removed  to  facilitate 
traffic  and  whole  sections  of  the  walls  have  been 
demolished  and  utilised  as  road-metal.  Before  long 
Bangkok  will  be  a city  of  bricks  but  it  will  be 
also  a city  of  trees,  the  verdure  of  which,  together  with 
the  graceful  spires  and  bright-coloured  roofs  of  its 
religious  and  public  buildings,  will  always  redeem 
it  from  the  monotony  of  appearance  which  characterises 
many  cities  of  the  west. 

North  of  the  city  an  extensive  park  was  laid  out  a 
few  years  ago,  in  the  centre  of  which  the  late  King 
built  for  himself  a small  palace  to  which  he  could 
periodically  retire  to  enjoy  the  pleasures  of  country  life. 
The  park,  which  is  called  Dusit,  or  ‘ The  Paradise  where 
all  desires  are  fulfilled,’  after  the  fourth  heaven  of  the 


THE  PALACE,  BANGKOK,  {Photo  Unz 


SI  KAK  PHAYA,  SRI,  BANGKOK.  IPhoto:  Lenz. 


THE  TOWNS 


25 


Buddhist  cosmogony,  is  now  a place  of  shrubberies, 
ornamental  waters,  small  artificial  hills  and  kiosks, 
intersected  by  well-kept  walks  and  carriage-drives  lined 
with  avenues  of  tamarind  and  other  trees.  The  summer 
palace  has  grown  into  a great  enclosure  containing 
many  fine  buildings  in  which  the  Court  till  lately  re- 
sided almost  permanently,  and  a magnificent  Audience 
Chamber,  while,  at  a distance  round  about  it,  stand 
many  beautiful  villas,  the  palaces  of  the  more  important 
Royal  princes.  A boulevard  about  two  miles  long  and 
some  200  feet  wide,  lined  with  trees  and  crossing  three 
canals  by  means  of  handsome  marble  bridges,  connects 
the  Dusit  Palace  with  the  Grand  Palace  in  the  city, 
which  last  appears  a maze  of  delicate  spiral  roofs,  flashing 
with  gold  and  silver,  overtopping  white  castellated 
wails  and,  with  its  surrounding  green  lawns,  white 
roads  and  imposing  temples  and  public  buildings,  forms 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  sights  of  the  Far  East. 

The  European  residential  quarter  is  to  the  south  and 
south-east  of  the  town  where  many  of  the  foreign  con- 
sulates, now  nearly  all  raised  to  the  condition  of 
Legations,  have  been,  or  are  being,  rebuilt.  All  the 
main  streets  are  lined  with  shade  trees  and  provided 
Avith  electric  tramways  while  the  Avhole  toAvn  is  lit  by 
electricity. 

The  Avater  question  has  ahvays  been  a difficulty  in 
Bangkok,  for,  though  Avater  in  the  rivers  and  canals  is 
superabundant  in  quantity,  it  is,  more  especially  in  the 
dry  season  AAdien  it  is  charged  Avith  filth  and  made 
brackish  by  the  strong  tidal  influence,  quite  disgusting 
as  to  quality.  Recently  a number  of  artesian  Avells  have 
been  sunk  by  the  Government,  and  thereby  a supply  of 
fairly  good  drinking  AA^ater  has  been  obtained,  sufficient 
for  the  needs  of  schools,  barracks  and  a icav  other  public 
institutions,  but  the  vast  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
are  still  compelled  to  drink  the  river  AAaater  and  there- 


26 


SIAM 


fore  a water-works  sclieme,  one  of  tlie  many  which  have 
been  considered  within  the  last  twenty  years  or  so,  has 
lately  been  sanctioned,  and  is  now  being  carried  out. 
The  work  will  cost  about  two  hundred  and  thirty 
thousand  pounds,  is  expected  to  be  completed  at  the 
end  of  1912,  and  will  supply  the  greater  part  of  the 
city  with  good  water  brought  from  a distance  of  some 
twenty  miles  and  subjected  to  an  elaborate  process  of 
ozonisation. 

The  reach  of  the  river  immediately  below  the  town 
constitutes  the  Port  of  Bangkok,  where  steamers,  sailing 
ships,  and  lighters  lie  at  anchor,  half  hidden  in  the 
smoke  of  numerous  rice-mill  chimneys  standing  on 
either  bank. 

The  quarter  known  as  Sam  Peng,  just  outside  the 
southern  face  of  the  old  city  walls,  is  a place  of  much 
interest.  It  is  the  Chinese  quarter,  and  its  inhabitants 
built  it  up  in  close  resemblance  to  a quarter  of  an  old 
Chinese  city.  The  houses,  of  every  size  and  shape, 
stand  as  close  together  as  possible  and,  until  a short 
while  ago,  the  only  streets  were  narrow  alleys  often  not 
twelve  feet  wide,  where  crowds  of  people  hurried  up 
and  down  all  day  and  where  the  lives  and  property  of 
strangers  was  not  safe  at  night.  Almost  every  house 
is  a shop  of  some  kind  and  an  immense  amount  of  trade 
is  carried  on  in  the  quarter  by  a population  herded 
together  under  the  most  revoltingly  insanitary  con- 
ditions. Of  late  years  several  broad  streets  have  been 
driven  right  through  the  settlement  and  measures  have 
been  taken  to  exert  both  sanitary  and  police  control 
over  the  inhabitants,  but  the  neighbourhood  is  still 
the  haunt  of  disease  and  crime,  and  its  condition  is 
the  reverse  of  creditable  to  the  administration  of  the 
city. 

Ghiemj  Mai,  situated  in  Northern  Siam  is,  in  import- 
ance if  not  in  size,  the  second  town  in  Siam.  It  stands 


THE  TOWNS 


27 


at  ai^  elevation  of  800  feet  above  the  sea,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  river  Meping,  one  of  the  northern  branches 
of  the  Menani  Chao  Phaya  in  18°  46'  N.  latitnde  and 
99°  0'  E.  longitude.  The  place  was  founded  in  the 
11th  century  a.d.  as  the  capital  of  a small  Lao  State 
which  subsecjuently  acquired  sway  over  the  other 
principalities  of  the  neighbourhood  and  became  the 
centre  of  a somewhat  loosely  constituted  kingdom.  All 
through  the  Middle  Ages  and  down  to  the  beginning  of 
the  19th  century  Chieng  Mai,  as  the  first  city  of  this 
kingdom,  was  exposed  to  endless  vicissitudes ; its 
rulers  being  consistent!}^  claimed  by  both  Burma  and 
Siam  as  their  vassals,  and  frequently  compelled  by 
force  of  arms  to  transfer  their  allegiance  from  one  to 
the  other  of  these  great  rivals.  The  town  is  surrounded 
on  three  sides  by  massive  walls  and  ramparts,  now 
fallen  into  decay,  and  has  a walled  enceinte  rather  over 
a square  mile  in  area,  within  which  are  the  palace  of 
the  Chao  or  hereditary  chief  of  the  State,  the  houses  of 
his  principal  adherents,  and  a number  of  temples.  It 
is  the  headquarters  of  the  High  Commissioner  of  the 
Payap  division  and  also  of  a division  of  the  Siamese 
army.  The  population,  which  is  about  30,000,  mostly 
Lao,  lives  in  neat  houses  lining  well  laid  out  streets, 
intersecting  more  or  less  at  right  angles.  A good  water 
supply  is  obtained  from  a hill  near  by,  from  which  the 
encircling  moats  and  a series  of  water-courses  within 
the  town  are  filled  with  running  water,  and  the  river 
is  spanned  by  a massive  wooden  bridge.  The  foreign 
community  is  composed  of  members  of  an  old-established 
American  Presbyterian  mission  and  of  the  employes  of 
several  European  firms  engaged  in  the  teak  trade.  A 
British  Consul,  Avhose  district  extends  over  all  tlie 
Northern  Siamese  Lao  States,  resides  here,  and  there 
are  also  many  Burmese  timber  and  general  merchants 
established  in  the  place.  There  are  a few  Europeans 


•28  SIAM 

in  the  Government  Service,  Medical,  Forest,  Survey  and 
Gendarmerie  officers. 

Puket,  also  called  Tongkah,  a name  given  to  it  by  the 
Chinese,  lies  in  7°  50'  N.  latitude : and  98°  24'  E. 
longitude,  at  the  south-east  corner  of  the  island  of 
Chalang  or  Junk  Ceylon,  off  the  west  coast  of  Southern 
Siam.  The  place  has  long  been  known  to  the  outside 
world  on  account  of  the  rich  tin  mines  that  exist  there. 
The  colonists  from  the  shores  of  India  who  worked 
the  mines  some  2000  years  ago,  were  possibly  the 
founders  of  the  town.  Eight  or  nine  hundred  years 
later,  as  has  been  said  above,  Arab  traders  who  came  to 
share  in  the  wealth  of  the  island  settled  at  Puket,  and 
about  the  15th  century  a.d.  the  attention  of  Chinese 
merchants  was  drawn  to  the  mines,  with  the  result  that 
a colony  of  Chinese  miners  sprang  up,  which  has  con- 
tinued there  down  to  the  present  time.  The  town, 
which  is  the  headquarters  of  the  High  Commissioner 
of  the  Puket  Division,  is  in  no  way  remarkable  except 
for  the  enormous  deposits  of  tin  around  and  below  it. 
The  population  which  amounts  to  about  30,000,  consists 
chiefly  of  Chinese.  There  are  a few  Europeans  engaged 
in  the  tin  mining  industry,  and  an  Australian  company 
has  recently  been  organised  to  dredge  tin  from  the 
bottom  of  the  sea  close  to  the  town,  which  it  is  doing 
with  some  profit. 

Ayuthia,  known  to  the  Siamese  as  Krimg  Kao,  or 
‘ The  Old  Capital,’  stands  on  the  eastern  branch  of  the 
Menam  Chao  Phaya  in  14°  21'  N.  latitude  : and  100°  32' 
E.  longitude.  The  river  is  here  broken  up  into  a net- 
work of  creeks  and  marshes  in  the  midst  of  which 
stands  an  island  covered  with  the  ruins  of  pagodas, 
temples  and  palaces,  the  remains  of  the  once  proud  city 
which  played  so  great  a part  in  the  history  of  Siam. 
In  the  earliest  records  the  place  appears  under  the 
name  of  Dvarapuri  or  Dvaravati  as  the  capital  of  a 


I 


s . 
z 


-) 


FLOATING  HOUSES  AT  AYUTHIA. 


THE  TOWNS 


29 


small  state  wliicb.  existed  from  469  a.d.  to  about  650  a.d. 
and  then  disap»peared  amid  tlie  continuous  and  kaleido- 
scojDic  political  changes  of  the  time.  About  1189  a.d. 
it  emerged  once  more  as  Nong  Sano  or  Nong  Sarnao, 
known  to  Arab  travellers  and  to  the  compiler  of  the 
Malay  Annals  as  Shahr-i-Nao  or  Shaher-al-Naui,  the 
capital  of  a State  embracing  all  central  and  southern 
Siam.  At  this  time  it  rose  to  a considerable  elegreo 
of  prosperity  but,  again  declining,  faded  away  and 
had  fallen  into  insignificance  when,  in  1350,  it  was 
overthrown  and  rej^laced  by  the  city  of  Ayuthia.  The 
old  name  of  Dvaravati  survived  all  vicissitudes,  and 
is  used  frequently  by  historians,  as  for  instance  by 
Symes  in  his  ‘Account  of  an  Embassy  to  Ava  in  1795,’ 
as  one  of  the  names  by  which  the  later  capital  of  Siam 
Avas  then  still  knoAAm  to  the  Burmese.  Ayuthia  A\^as 
twice  destroyed  by  the  Burmese,  once  in  1555  a.d.  and 
again  in  1769,  after  AAdiich  latter  date  it  ceased  to  be 
the  capital  of  the  country.  The  modern  toAvn  consists 
chiefly  of  houses  built  of  light  and  perishable  material, 
clustering  on  the  banks  of  the  ancient  creeks  or  erected 
on  floating  pontoons.  The  High  Commissioner  of  the 
Ayuthia  division  has  his  headquarters  here,  and  there 
is  a museum  containing  a good  collection  of  objects  of 
much  archeological  A^alue  recoA^ered  from  the  adjacent 
ruins.  The  government  offices,  jail,  hospital,  market 
and  raihvay  station  are  all  good  commodious  buildings. 
Some  miles  of  fairly  good  roads  haA^e  recently  been 
constructed  but  communication  is  still  chiefly  by  Avater. 
Ayuthia  is  connected  by  rail  and  river  AAntli  Bangkok, 
forty-tAA^o  miles  distant,  and  has  a considerable  trade 
Avith  the  capital.  The  population,  about  12,000,  is 
largely  devoted  to  agriculture  but  there  are  also  many 
shopkeepers.  Under  the  neAv  military  arrangements, 
Ayuthia  is  the  headquarters  of  a division  of  the  arniAA 
Other  towns:  Petriu,  on  the  Bang  Pakong  river  and 


30 


SIAM 


connected  with  Bangkok  by  rail,  is  a town  of  rising 
importance.  Situated  in  the  centre  of  a fertile  district, 
its  rice  trade  is  growing  fast  and  several  rice  mills  have 
within  recent  years  been  erected  there.  The  population 
which  is  about  10,000  is  Siamese  with  a strong  admix- 
ture of  Chinese.  Chantaburi,  a few  miles  up  the  river 
which  bears  its  name  and  which  falls  into  the  sea  not 
far  from  the  south-east  extremity  of  Siam,  is  a small 
town  which,  though  a very  old  settlement  and  of  some 
historical  importance,  is  chiefly  remarkable  in  these 
modern  times  for  having  been  occupied  by  a French 
garrison  from  1893  to  1905,  as  a check  upon  supposed 
Siamese  aggression  on  the  eastern  frontier.  The  town 
is  the  centre  of  a small  trade,  more  especially  in  j)epper, 
and  is  the  seaport  for  the  gem-mining  district  situated 
further  inland,  the  greater  part  of  which,  however,  now 
belongs  to  French-protected  Kambodia. 

The  population  is.  mixed  to  an  extraordinary  degree. 
Many  of  the  inhabitants  are  Annamese  Roman  Catholics, 
the  descendants  of  refugees  from  aforetime  Christian 
persecutions  in  Annam.  Others  are  Shan  and  Burmese, 
attracted  to  the  neighbourhood  by  the  gem  mines  while 
there  are  a good  many  Kambodians  from  across  the 
neighbouring  frontier.  Chantaburi  is  the  headquarters 
of  an  administrative  Division. 

The  terminus  of  the  eastern  Railway,  the  oldest  line 
in  the  country,  is  Korat,  170  miles  from  Bangkok,  an 
ancient  walled  town  on  the  uplands  of  Eastern  Siam. 
The  population,  now  about  7,000,  consists  of  Siamese, 
Eastern  Lao  and  Kambodians.  The  official  name  of 
the  place  is  Nakhon  Racha  Sima  or  ‘the  Frontier 
Country  ’ and,  lying  between  Siam  and  Kambodia, 
it  Avas  formerly  subject  to  periods  of  Kambodian 
supremacy.  Occasionally  also  it  profited  by  disturb- 
ances in  the  surrounding  states  to  assume  independance, 
but  it  Avas  finally  reduced  to  order  and  incorporated 


CLIMATE 


31 


with.  Siam  on  the  opening  of  the  Bangkok  era.  It  is 
now  the  headquarters  of  the  Korat  Divisions,  both 
civil  and  military,  and  of  a French  vice-consul.  It 
is  tbe  centre  of  activity  of  the  sericultural  depart- 
ment and  has  a growing  trade  witli  Bangkok,  chiefly 
in  livestock.  Ubon,  on  the  Nam  Mnn  in  far  distant 
Eastern  Siam,  is  a Lao  town  of  considerable  size  but 
of  which,  little  is  known.  Paknampoli  at  the  junction 
of  the  rivers  of  Northern  Siam,  has  acquired  some 
importance  since  the  railway  reached  it.  Raheng,  on 
the  Meping,  is  a timber  station  and  the  starting  point 
of  a Burmese  trade  route. 

Ang  Tong  and  Saraburi  are  places  in  Central  Siam 
with  a fair  amount  of  trade,  the  former  in  rice  and 
the  latter  in  livestock  and  other  produce  of  Eastern 
Siam.  Phrapatum  and  Ratburi  in  the  south-western 
district  of  Central  Siam  are  interesting  both  on 
account  of  their  past  history  and  their  present  activity. 
vSukhothai,  Sawankalok,  Pitsanulok,  Ivampeng  Pet, 
Nakhon  Sawan,  Suphanburi  and  Lopburi,  the  sites 
of  ancient  capitals  and  fortified  places,  are  all  of  much 
archeological  interest,  but  as  modern  towns  are  of  no 
particular  importance. 

The  Climate 

Temperatiwe. — The  temperature  of  Siam,  though  the 
country  lies  entirely  within  the  northern  tropic,  is  con- 
siderably affected  by  peculiar  local  conditions  and  there- 
fore varies  very  perceptibly  in  different  localities.  On  the 
plains  of  Central  Siam,  between  the  months  of  February 
or  March  and  October,  the  sea  wind  blow^s  from  the 
south  or  south-west  almost  continuously,  mitigating  the 
heat  of  the  days  and  rendering  the  nights  comparatively 
cool.  During  this  period,  which  comprises  the  hot 
and  the  rainy  seasons,  the  temperature  rarely  rises  above 
98°  fahr.  or  falls  below  7 9°  fahr.  From  the  end  of  October 


32 


SIAM 


to  February,  the  so-called  cold  season,  the  wind  blows 
from  the  north-east  when  the  maximum  temperature 
may  reach  92°  fahr.  and  the  minimum  fall  as  low 
as  54°  fahr.  Formerly  the  climate  of  Bangkok  city 
was  very  similar  to  that  of  the  surrounding  plains 
but  during  the  past  few  years  a change  has  become 
noticeable.  Sir  John  Bowring  in  his  book  on  Siam, 
gives  statistics  of  the  temperature  of  Bangkok  over 
the  period  1840  to  1847,  during  which  the  maximum 
temperature  registered  was  97°  fahr.  and  the  minimum 
54°  fahr.  Observations  of  a much  later  date  give  results 
very  similar  to  the  above  but  the  statistics  of  the  last 
ten  years  or  so  show  an  almost  continual  increase  in 
the  average  daily  range  and  at  the  present  time,  while 
the  minimum  temperature  remains  much  as  it  used 
to  be,  the  maximum  reaches  105°  or  106°  fahr.  each 
year  during  the  hot  weather  and  100°  fahr.  during  almost 
every  month  of  the  other  seasons.  The  causes  of 
this  climatic  change  have  not  hitherto  been  explained 
but  it  is  possible  that  they  may  be  found  in  increase 
of  population,  in  the  substitution  of  bricks  and  tiles 
for  timber  and  thatch  as  house-building  materials, 
or  in  the  draining  of  marshes  in  and  around  the 
city. 

In  Northern  Siam  owing  to  the  absence  of  the  sea 
breezes  and  to  greater  radiation,  intense  mid-day  heats 
followed  by  cool  nights  are  the  rule,  the  mean  maximum 
standing  about  3°  higher  and  the  mean  minimum  about 
4°  lower  than  on  the  plains  further  south. 

The  wide,  shallow  basin  of  Eastern  Siam,  cut  off 
by  its  surrounding  hills  from  the  cooling  breezes  from 
the  south  and  west  and  with  its  bare  laterite  soil 
exposed  to  the  full  heat  of  the  sun,  is  subject  to  terrific 
heats  which  scorch  up  the  land,  burn  off  the  thin 
vegetation  and  reduce  great  tracts  of  country  to  charred 
and  arid  wastes,  while  the  wide  range  of  daily  tempera- 


MEl'EOllOI.OGY 


33 


ture  caused  by  excessive  radiation,  renders  the  climate 
generally  nnhealtliy. 

It  is  in  Southern  Siam  that  the  mildest  climate  and 
also  the  lowest  average  range  of  temperature  prevails. 
There,  with  sea  winds  blowing  across  the  peninsnla 
alternately  from  west  and  east,  the  thermometer  rarely 
falls  below  1)8°  fahr.,  scarcely  ever  rises,  even  at  the 
hottest  time  of  the  year,  above  05°  fahr,,  the  daily  range 
seldom  exceeding  14°  fahr.,  and  often  during  the  wet 
season  amonnting  to  no  more  than  3°  fahr. 

In  Central,  Northern,  and  Eastern  Siam  there  are 
three  distinct  seasons,  the  hot  weather,  the  rains,  and 
the  cold  weather.  The  first  extends  from  Eebrnary,  or 
5Iarch  to  May,  the  second  from  Jnne  to  October,  and 
the  third  covers  the  remaining  four  months  of  the  3^ear. 
When  the  north-east  winds  blow  strong,  the  cold 
weather  is  very  marked  and,  thongh  the  actual 
temperature  is  not  below  the  average  summer  heat  of 
Europe,  causes  some  inconvenience  to  the  peoiple  of  the 
countr3v  At  times,  however,  the  seasonal  winds  fail 
and  when  this  hapi^ens  the  cold  weather  is  scarcely  to 
be  distinguished  from  the  hot.  In  the  louder  part  of 
Southern  Siam  there  are  two  seasons  only,  the  hot 
weather  which  lasts  from  Fel)ruaiy  to  August,  and  the 
rains  extending  from  September  to  January,  the 
lieight  of  the  wet  season  falling  in  Deceml)er,  a month 
which  is  almost  invariably  quite  Avithout  rain  in  Central 
Siam.  South  of  the  toAvn  of  Chumporn  there  is  no  cold 
season,  but  occasionally  the  thermometer  may  fall  below 
08°  fahr.  for  one  or  tAvo  nights  in  January  or  Februaiy. 

Rainfall. — The  rainfall  of  Siam  varies  a good  deal  in 
the  different  parts  of  the  country.  In  Southern  Siam 
and  on  the  Chantaburi  coast  the  aA^erage  is  not  far  short 
of  100  inches  for  the  year ; in  Northern  Siam  it  is 
al^out  GO  inches,  and  in  the  neigh])ourhood  of  Bangkok 
about  50  inches.  Until  a feAv  years  ago  the  Government 
c 


34 


SIAM 


collected  no  rainfall-statistics  bnt  records  liave  long 
been  kept  at  the  consulates,  and  by  business  firms  and 
private  individuals,  and  tliese  having  been  carefully 
collected  and  tabulated  by  the  Royal  Irrigation  Depart- 
ment, and  compared  with  the  regular  statistics  of 
recent  years,  give  what  appears  to  be  a fairly  correct 
average  over  a long  period. 

The  comparative  smallness  of  the  rainfall  in  Central 
Siam  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  influence  of  the  great 
western  mountain  ranges  which  gather  the  clouds  of  the 
south-west  or  rain-bearing  monsoon,  and  cause  the 
precipitation  on  their  summits  and  slopes  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  rain  which  would  otherwise  be  distributed 
more  equally  over  the  whole  country.  The  rainfall  is 
not  entirely  confined  to  the  wet  season,  for  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Bangkok  showers  fall  at  intervals 
during  the  cold  and  the  hot  seasons,  while  towards  the 
west  and  in  Southern  Siam  the  fall  amounts  sometimes 
to  several  inches  during  the  hot  weather  months.  Snow 
never  falls  anywhere  in  Siam,  not  even  upon  the  highest 
mountain  peaks  of  the  north  but  hailstorms,  though  of 
very  rare  occurrence,  are  not  altogether  unknown.  The 
beginning  of  the  wet  season  is  usually  heralded  b}" 
a series  of  severe  squalls  and  thunderstorms  accom- 
panied by  heav}^  rain,  which  sweep  down  from  the 
western  heights  and  sometimes  cause  damage  to 
property  on  the  plains.  During  the  months  of 
September  and  October,  heavy  gales  almost  of  cyclonic 
violence  are  met  with  in  the  gulf,  but  accidents  to  the 
shipping  constantly  plying  there  to  and  from  Bangkok 
are  very  rare.  AVaterspouts  are  occasionally  seen  both 
at  sea  and  over  the  flooded  marshes  of  the  plains.  At 
the  lower  extremity  of  Southern  Siam,  in  the  districts 
bordering  on  the  British-protected  Malay  States,  the 
memory  of  a devastating  cyclone  which  caused  great 
destruction  of  property  about  thirty  years  ago,  still 


FLORA 


35 


remains  with  the  country-people,  who  refer  to  it  con- 
tinually when  fixing  the  dates  of  occurrences  in  the 
lives  of  the  last  two  generations. 


SCIEXCE 


Flora 

The  Flora  of  Siam  is  a subject  which  has  hitherto 
received  practically  no  attention  at  all,  either  from  the 
Siamese  themselves  or  from  botanists  of  other  nationality. 
A few  lists  of  plants  in  the  vernacular  recorded  for  their 
medicinal  or  supposed  magic  qualities  and  stray  writings 
from  peripatetic  German  scientists,  not  of  the  first 
order,  constitute  the  only  literature  touching  the  matter, 
and  it  is  probable  that  there  is  scarcely  an  individual 
actually  residing  in  the  country  who  has  ever  given  more 
than  the  most  cursory  attention  to  this  important  subject. 
Owing  to  the  physical  nature  and  geographical  position 
of  the  country  the  Flora  much  resembles  that  of  Burma 
in  Xorthern  Siam  and  that  of  Malaya  in  the  western 
parts  of  Central  and  throughout  Southern  Siam,  and 
hence  a general  idea  of  the  Siamese  Flora  may  be 
obtained  by  a study  of  the  botanical  works  concerning 
those  adjacent  countries.  The  classification  of  plants 
peculiar  to  the  country,  of  Avhich  there  is  doubtless 
a large  numljer,  presents,  however,  an  almost  untrodden 
field  for  the  energies  of  future  enthusiasts,  ^jending 
whose  coming  the  botanical  secrets  of  the  country,  some 
of  which  are  possibly  of  much  economic  value,  remain 
undisclosed. 

The  Siamese  Flora  is  almost  entirely  tropical,  for  it 
is  only  upon  the  upper  slopes  and  summits  of  a few  of 
the  highest  mountains  that  ])hints  peculiar  to  a temperate 


36 


SIAM 


climate  are  to  be  found,  and  even  there  only  a few 
species  are  represented,  intermingded  with  the  tropical 
forms.  The  tropical  Floia  is,  however,  very  large  and 
comprehensive,  for  the  natural  features  of  the  conntry, 
the  low-lying  seashores  and  the  swamps,  marshes,  meres 
and  creeks  of  Central  Siam,  the  rivers,  hills  and  moun- 
tains of  Northern  Siam,  the  hot,  dry  uplands  of  Eastern 
Siam  and  the  hnmid  atmosphere  of  the  monntains, 
valleys  and  plains  of  Sonthern  Siam,  provide  all  the 
^aarions  conditions  most  favourable  to*  the  growth  of 
plants  of  widely  different  nature  and  requirements. 

The  folloAving  list  of  the  botanical  orders  repre- 
sented in  the  Flora  of  the  conntry  sets  np  no  claim 
to  anything  like  completeness,  but  it  is  possible  that, 
in  the  absence  of  any  other,  it  may  occasionally  be  of 
nse  Avhere  the  more  elementary  aspects  of  the  subject 
are  concerned. 

Angiosperms. — DiaotyJedonous  Orders. — Tlie  Bcinun- 
culacece  form  a very  poorly  represented  order,  having 
apparently  no  members  in  any  x^art  of  Siam  excex>t  the 
north  Avhere,  amid  the  semi-temx)erate  A^egetation  of  the 
nx^per  slox^es  of  the  higher  monntains,  sx^ecies  of  CroAA^s- 
foot  and  Clematis  occur.  A small  Clematis,  rather  like 
TraAmller’s  Joy,  is  cnltiAmted  in  gardens  in  the  south 
bnt  is  not  indigenous. 

Of  the  order  Magnoliacece-  the  chief  examxDle  is  the 
Chamx^ac  (Miclielia  Chavipaca)  of  AAdiich  tAvo  sx)ecies, 
Avith  yelloAv  and  AAdiite  floAvers  resx^ectively,  are  common 
in  Sonthern  and  Central  Siam  and  are  largely  cultivated 
in  gardens  for  their  sAAmet  scented  floAvers. 

The  Anonacece  are  Avidely  diffused.  The  cnstard- 
apple  in  Northern,  Central,  and  Eastern  Siam  and  the 
Bullock’s  heart  in  Sonthern  Siam,  are  common  fruits, 
Avhile  several  species  of  Artahotrys  groAV  Avild  in  the 
j Tingles  of  the  latter  xiart  and  are  cultivated  in  all  parts 
of  the  conntry  for  their  fragrant  bnt  insignificant- 


FLORA 


37 


looking  flowers  and  for  their  handsome  foliage,  as 
trees,  climhers  and  shrubs. 

The  waters  of  Central  Siam  ahonnd  with  s])ecies  of 
the  order  Nyniphaeacece  ; Nyinphaea  Lotus  the  White 
Waterlily  and  N.  vnhra,  a variety  with  beantifnl  deep 
red  flowers,  are  common  thronghont  the  country  in  almost 
eveiy  piece  of  standing  water. 

The  tall  NdiDuhiuni  Waterlily,  locally  known  as  J)auh 
Biia  or  Fatlium,  and  in  English  as  the  Sacred  Lotus,  also 
belonging  to  the  N yuiphaeacece,  is  found  in  the  muddy 
shallows  at  the  edges  of  rivers  and  in  all  the  marshes 
and  ponds  of  Central  Siam  which  are  beyond  the  reach 
of  sea  water.  Its  beantifnl  rose-pink  blossoms,  which 
stand  up  well  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  are  very 
mnch  admired  by  the  Siamese  and,  as  a sacred  emblem 
of  Buddhism,  are  constantly  reproduced  in  paintings, 
wood-carving  and  metal-work.  The  roots  and  seeds  are 
nsed  as  food  and  the  leaves,  Avliich  are  peltate  and 
almost  round,  sometimes  take  the  place  of  dishes.  The 
petals  of  the  flowers  are  mnch  nsed  as  the  outside 
wrappers  of  native  cigars. 

The  order  Crueiferce  does  not  ap})ear  to  be  represented 
in  the  wild  state  at  all.  A few  species  are  cultivated  in 
the  north  for  the  oil  of  the  seeds  or  for  the  edible 
cpialities  of  the  leaves,  stem  or  roots.  The  Cabbage 
and  other  allied  plants  of  the  order  are  diflicnlt  to  raise 
in  Central,  and  impossible  in  Sontliern,  Siam. 

The  Violaceai  are  represented  l)y  a small  Dog  A^iolet 
which  is  found  occasionally  on  the  slopes  of  the  higher 
monntains  of  Northern  Siam,  apjiearing  in  clearings 
after  the  crops  of  hill-rice  have  been  reaped,  and  I)}"  the 
species  of  the  genus  Alsodein,  an  arborescent  plant 
with  small  regular  flowers,  which  is  common  in  Sonthern 
Siam. 

Of  the  order  Guttiferce  the  genns  Gareinra  has 
several  s^Decies  in  Siam,  principal  among  vdiich  are  the 


38 


SIAM 


Mangosteen  and  the  Gamboge.  They  are  all  trees  with 
smooth  leathery  leaves  and  more  or  less  coloured, 
resinous  juice.  The  fruit  of  at  least  three  species 
indigenous  to  Southern  Siam  is  eaten,  but  none  of  these 
can  compare  with  the  cultivated  Mangosteen,  considered 
by  many  to  be  the  most  delicious  fruit  in  the  world. 
Extracts  from  these  plants  are  used  in  medicine  as 
astringents. 

The  order  Diptei^ocarpece  includes  many  forest  trees 
native  to  Siam,  one  of  which,  Tlopen  odorata  (Siamese, 
Mai  Taliien)  is,  after  teak,  one  of  the  finest  timber  trees 
of  the  country,  producing  also  a fragrant  resin  used  in 
medicine  as  an  astringent,  and  for  making  pitch. 

The  order  Malvacece  is  largely  represented.  Hibiscus 
of  many  species  grow  wild  and  others  are  cultivated  for 
their  beautiful  flowers.  H.  esculentus,  the  Ladies’ 
Finger,  is  one  of  the  commonest  vegetables.  Bombax 
mcdabaidciun,  a tree 'which  grows  to  an  immense  size 
in  Central,  Northern,  and  Eastern  Siam,  producing 
brilliant  red  flowers  and  pods  containing  a coarse  cotton, 
is  of  frequent  occurrence.  Several  species  of  Gossypium, 
though  not  apparently  indigenous,  are  cultivated.  A 
large  herbaceous  mallow  with  conspicuous  yellow 
flovcers  is  a common  wild  plant  in  the  fields  and  open 
lands  round  villages  and  there  are  several  other  species, 
some  of  which  grow  into  large  semi-woody  shrubs. 
Lastly,  the  ‘ Durian,’  a great  tree  the  fruit  of  which  is 
mucli  prized,  is  cultivated  in  Southern  and  Central 
Siam,  but  is  absent  from  the  Northern  and  Eastern 
districts. 

The  order  Oxalidacece-  includes  small  plants,  the 
commonest  of  which  is  Oxalis  cornieulata,  a weed  with 
trefoil  leaves  and  small  yellow  flowers  which  grows  in 
great  abundance  on  waste  lands,  in  gardens,  and  in  the 
rice  fields  after  the  crops  have  been  reaped. 

The  Rutaceae  (sub-order  Aurantiaceae)  comprise  the 


FLORA 


89 


Bael,  tlie  Orange  family  and  the  Woodapple.  The 
first  and  last  are  found  wild  in  Southern  and  Central 
Siam  and  possibly  in  the  other  parts  as  well,  while  the 
Orange  family  is  represented  by  a great  number  of 
cultivated  species  and  varieties.  The  Bael  fruit  is  used 
in  medicine  as  an  astringent  and  the  Woodapple 
{Feronia  elepliantiim)  provides  a A^ery  hard  timber. 
Of  Pummelos,  Limes,  Lemons  and  Oranges,  each  district 
produces  its  oaaui  varieties,  all  of  Avhich  differ  more  or 
less  from  the  fruits  of  this  Avide-spread  genus  which 
are  knoAAm  in  Europe. 

Southern  Siam  contains  many  species  of  the  order 
Meliacece,  of  Avhich  the  Langsat  and  the  Ramhutan, 
cultivated  for  their  fruits  and  apparently  indigenous 
in  the  country,  are  perhaps  the  best  known.  Melia 
Azedaracli,  sometimes  called  the  Persian  Lilac,  is  also 
common  and  many  large  trees  found  in  the  jungles  of 
the  South  and  in  the  Avest  part  of  Central  Siam  also 
belong  to  this  order.  The  Nim,  a tree  of  the  Meliacea% 
the  bark  of  Avhich  yields  a medicinal  extract  useful  in 
cases  of  fever,  is  frequent  in  the  jungles  of  Northern 
Siam. 

The  order  RhamnacecE  is  represented  in  Northern, 
Central,  and  ANestern  Siam  l)y  the  Zizijplius  Jujuha,  a 
bushy  tree,  A^ery  thorn}’,  Avith  small,  round,  smooth 
leaA’es  and  bearing  annually  a large  quantity  of  fruit 
rather  bigger  than  a cherry  and  of  a yelloAV  or  rosy 
colour  when  ripe.  The  fruit  is  edible  but  is  not  of 
much  account.  The  tree  grows  wild  in  great  profusion 
in  the  plains  and  open  country  but  is  not  found  in  the 
thick  jungle  nor  anyAAdiere  in  Southern  Siam. 

The  order  SapindacecB  includes  species  of  trees,  the 
fruits  of  Avhich  make  a lather  Avith  AAUter  and  are 
therefore  used  as  soap.  Several  species  are  common  in 
Northern  and  Central  Siam.  The  order  also  includes 
the  Lychee  or  Litchi  and  the  Lam  Yai,  both  cultivated 


40 


SIAM 


for  fruit  and  tlie  latter  j^ossibly  peculiar  to  Siam,  and 
several  closely  allied  wild  species.  Gavdios'pevmum 
Jlalicacahum,  a very  common  climbing  herbaceous 
] )lant,  remarkable  for  the  large  inflated  capsules  enclosing 
its  fruit,  also  belongs  to  this  order. 

The  Anacardiaceae  include  the  Mango  which  is  culti- 
Auted  in  endless  Amriety  in  Northern,  Central  and 
Eastern,  but  scarcely  at  all  in  Southern,  Siam  though 
of  the  many  indigenous  wild  species  which  inhabit  the 
country  the  greater  number  are  native  of  the  South. 
A common  Avild  mango  is  found  as  a tree  of  great  size 
in  many  of  the  forest  districts  and  is  quite  distinct  from 
the  mango  A\diich  has  escaped  from  cultivation  and 
become  Avild  in  the  neighbourhood  of  villages.  The 
Amrieties  called  Paidi  and  Machang  or  Bachang  in 
Malay,  Avith  Amry  inferior  fruit,  groAv  almost,  if  not 
quite,  Avild  in  Southern  Siam  AAdiere  they  both  appear 
to  be  indigenous.  The  Spondias  mangifera  Avhich  is 
knoAvn  to  the  English  in  India  as  the  Hog-j)lum,  is  a 
natiAm  of  the  jungles  of  Northern,  Central  and  Eastern 
Siam,  AAdiile  S.  didcis,  (Siamese,  Ma  Prang)  a fine  tree 
bearing  apricot-coloured  fruit  liaAdng  an  agreeable  acid- 
SAveet  flavour,  is  ciiltiA^ated  in  the  fruit  gardens  round 
about  Bangkok.  In  Central  Siam  the  Mango  has  been 
deAmloped  by  cultivation  into  a great  number  of  varieties, 
the  fruits  of  which  riAml  the  best  Indian  and  Burmese 
kinds.  Anacardium.  occidentale,  a small  untid}"  looking 
tree,  Amry  common  in  Southern  Siam,  has  a peculiar 
fruit  formed  of  the  much  enlarged  floral  recejAtacle  Avith 
a hard,  kidney-shaped  seed  attached  to  the  end  of  it  and 
quite  exposed.  This  fruit  is  called  Jamhu  Keterek  in 
Malay  and  is  eaten,  though  its  scent  Avhen  ripe  is  much 
superior  to  its  taste.  SeAmral  Avild  species  of  the 
genus  MeJanorrhoea,  belonging  to  this  order,  are  in- 
digenous and  yield  valuable  Avood-oils  much  used  for 
making  pitch,  Amrnish,  etc. 


FLORA 


41 


Tlie  order  Leg  urn  ino see-,  witli  its  sub-orders  Pap- 
ilionaceae,  Caesalpinece,  and  Mimoseae,  is  largely 
represented  in  Siam.  The  first  sub-order  includes  the 
Indigo,  the  CrofaJaria  and  a host  of  vetches,  beans  and 
pulse,  both  wild  and  cultivated,  and  also  the  Clitovia 
Ternatea,  a delicate  climbing  plant  with  flowers,  blue, 
purple  or  white,  resembling  a large  sweet-pea,  which 
grows  wild  in  profusion  in  Northern,  Central  and 
Eastern  Siam  but  is  rarely  seen  in  the  South.  The 
second  sub-order  contains  the  Caesalpinia  pulcherrinta 
(Siamese,  Hang  Nok  Yung)  grown  in  all  gardens, 
the  Tamarind  (Siamese,  Hakham)  a most  graceful  tree 
with  fine  pinnate  leaves,  small  fragrant  flowers  and  a 
bean-like  fruit,  edible  though  very  tart,  a tree  much 
used  for  shade  purposes  and  common  in  Northern, 
Central  and  Eastern  Siam  though  comparatively  rare 
in  the  South.  The  Elame-of-the-Eorest,  a large  tree 
said  to  have  come  originally  from  Madagascar,  and 
closely  allied  to  Caesalpinm  pulcheii'ima,  has  long  been 
grown  in  Siam,  where  its  beautiful  flowers  are  much 
admired.  The  plant  is  cjuite  acclimatised,  many 
specimens  of  great  age  are  to  be  seen,  and  in  a few 
places  it  has  apparently  escaped  from  cultivation  and 
become  wild.  Bauliinia  acAiminata,  a shrub  with 
^■^retty  white  flowers  common  in  Southern  Siam,  belongs 
to  this  sub-order,  as  does  another  species  with  small 
yellow  flowers  produced  in  clusters.  The  sub-order 
Mimosece-  includes  the  Sensitive  plant,  veiy  common 
and  troublesome  as  a Aveed  in  all  parts  of  the  country, 
and  many  Acacias,  of  Avliich  Cutch,  a native  of  the 
northern  forests,  yields  a valuable  dye.  Fithecolohhim 
cluJce  (Siamese,  Makham  Tete),  a small,  shrubby  tree 
belonging  to  this  sub-order  and  of  Central  American 
origin,  is  common  in  Central  Siam,  vdiere  it  is  used  for 
ornamental  hedging.  It  has  small  leaves  and  a curious 
tAvisted  pod  containing  black  seeds  Avhich  are  eaten 


42 


SIAM 


when  young  and  tender.  The  plant  is  to  he  found  in 
many  parts  of  the  riverine  districts  and  is  well 
established  in  the  wild  state. 

Siam  having  no  temperate  region,  is  not  well  off  in 
plants  of  the  order  Rosacece.  The  genus  Rosa  is 
represented  by  two  species  of  wild  rose  found  on  tlie 
northern  heights,  one  a scandent  plant  with  large  white 
flowers  and  the  other  a diminutive  shrub  of  incon- 
spicuous bloom.  Attempts  are  made  to  cultivate  different 
varieties  of  rose  but,  except  now  and  then  in  the  far 
north,  are  seldom  attended  with  any  degree  of  success. 
In  Bangkok  and  Central  Siam  generally,  the  common 
China  Rose  grows  passably  well,  and  a few  other  kinds 
appear  to  be  to  some  extent  acclimatised,  but  the  flowers 
produced  are  poor  and  the  extreme  liability  of  the  plants 
to  the  ravages  of  insects  and  of  disease  makes  their 
cultivation  scarce  worth  the  time  devoted  to  it.  Of  the 
genus  Ruhus  there-  are  two  or  three  species  of  Rasp- 
berry found  on  the  hill  slopes  of  the  north  ; Fragaria 
is  represented  by  a small  yellow-flowered  strawberry 
which  grows  in  old  clearings  on  the  highest  mountains 
only  ; of  Drupacece  there  are  no  species  known,  but 
the  srdo-order  Pomacece  has  one  species  of  apple  and 
one  of  pear,  grown  in  the  villages  of  some  of  the  northern 
hill-tribes  and  of  a most  inferior  quality.  There  is  a 
small  shrubby  tree  belonging  to  this  last  sub-order 
which  is  common  on  poor  sandy  ground  in  Central, 
Eastern  and  Southern  Siam,  having  large  thorns,  un- 
attractive yellowish  white  flowers  and  a hard  fruit 
resembling  a small  quince  but  quite  inedible. 

The  order  Myrtaeece  includes  the  Guava  (Siamese, 
Farang),  a bushy  tree  supposed  to  have  been  originally 
introduced  into  the  East  from  America  but  now  so  far 
dispersed  over  Siam  and  the  neighbouring  countries  as 
to  appear  indigenous  there.  The  Eugenia  or  Jamhosa, 
which  belongs  to  this  order  is  much  cultivated,  more 


FLORA 


43 


especially  in  Sontlierii  Siam,  where  at  least  three  species 
are  grown  for  the  sake  of  the  somewhat  insipid  and 
watery  fruit.  E.  malaccensis  has  large  glossy  leaves 
and  ornamental  crimson  filamentons  flowers.  liiE.  alha 
the  flower  filaments  are  pale  yellow.  De  Candolle  gives 
all  species  of  Eugenia  as  natives  of  Son  them  Siam  and 
the  Malay  Peninsula.  Eugenia  earyophyllata,  the  flower 
hnds  of  which,  when  dried,  constitute  the  cloves  of 
commerce,  is  a plant  which  thrives  in  Southern  Siam 
and  is  probably  indigenous  there.  It  belongs  to  this 
order  as  also  does,  according  to  some  authorities  but 
not  to  all,  the  Pomegranate,  cultivated  in  Siam  but 
apparently  a native  of  Persia. 

Of  the  order  Melastomacece,  Melastoma  malahatluncum 
and  M.  yolyanthuiii  are  both  exceedingly  common  on 
waste  ground  and  in  open  grass-covered  spaces.  The  two 
species  are  very  much  alike,  having  broadly  lanceolate 
leaves,  much  veined  and  covered  with  bristles  which 
on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf  are  soft  and  have  the 
appearance  of  down,  giving  a light  coloured  effect. 
The  leaves  are  opposite  and  the  stem  is  surmounted  by 
a bunch  of  red-purple  flowers,  each  one  shaped  rather 
like  a wild  rose.  The  fruit,  which  has  a black  juice,  is 
eaten  but  is  not  of  much  account. 

The  most  prominent  plant  in  Siam  of  the  order 
Lythraeece  is  the  Lugerstroemia  of  which  several 
varieties  grow  in  the  jungles  in  all  parts  of  tlie  country. 
They  are  particularly  numerous  in  Southern  Siam  where 
some  of  the  river  banks  are  thickly  fringed  with  them 
and  where,  during  tlie  months  of  May,  June,  July  and 
August,  their  profusion  of  beautiful  mauve  flowers  is  a 
striking  feature  of  the  landscape.  Some  of  the  varieties 
are  large  trees,  others  are  shrubs.  The  Henna  plant, 
Laiesonia  alha,  also  belongs  to  this  order  and  is  in- 
digenous in  Southern  Siam. 

The  order  Onagraeece  is  represented  chiefly  by 


44 


SIAM 


J nssieua  repens,  an  annual  water  plant  wliicli  appears 
in  great  quantities  floating  upon  tlie  waters  of  Central 
Siam  as  soon  as  the  rains  come.  It  has  small  and 
nninteresting  flowers.  It  is  probable  that  many  other 
plants  of  this  order  inhabit  Siam  but  they  have  not  been 
identified. 

Rliizoplioraeece.  A nnmber  of  species  of  this  order, 
collectively  known  as  Mangrove,  inhabit  the  salt  swamps 
and  marshes  round  the  northern  shores  of  the  Gulf  of 
Siam.  The}"  are  trees  which  root  in  the  mnd  and  form 
dense,  nnhealthy  jungle  right  to  the  edge  of  the  sea, 
and  extending  for  many  miles  on  either  side  of  the 
month  of  the  river  Menam  Chao  Phaya,  afford  a 
depressing  first  glimj^se  of  Siam  to  the  visitor  aj)proach- 
ing  from  the  seaward.  They  are  all  mnch  used  for 
firewood,  the  greater  part  of  the  fuel  consumed  in 
Bangkok  being  cut  in  the  Mangrove  swamps  and 
conveyed  to  the  city  in  boats. 

The  order  Comhretacece  includes  the  genus 
Terminalia  of  which  several  sj)ecies  are  good  timber 
trees  in  Siam.  T.  Catappa,  the  Almond  tree,  is  very 
handsome,  having  long  horizontal  branches  with  large 
smooth  and  glossy  leaves,  and  is  mnch  used  in  Bangkok 
as  a shade  tree.  The  fruit  is  a very  hard  nut  enclosed 
in  a green  outer  shell  ami  v ith  a kernel  tasting  some- 
thing like  walnut.  The  Qnisqualis  indica,  a climbing 
shrub,  is  indigenous  in  Southern  Siam  and  is  cultivated 
in  gardens  in  all  parts  of  the  country  for  the  sake  of 
its  axillary  spikes  of  pretty  pink  flowers,  remarkable 
for  their  long  calyx-tubes. 

The  Passifloracece  have  several  representatives  in 
Siam,  the  most  common  of  which  is  a delicate  herbaceous 
]flant,  a tenacious  climber,  which  grows  in  great  pro- 
fusion on  waste  ground  in  Southern,  and  to  a less 
extent  in  Central,  Siam,  having  small  white  flowers  of 
the  usual  Passionflower  formation  and  green  fruits 


FLORA 


45 


enclosed  in  the  hirsute  persistent  calyx.  This  plant 
has  lately  acquired  repute  as  a weed  killer  and  as  a 
covering  for  the  soil  of  rubber  |)lantations  in  the  Malay 
Peninsula  and  Southern  Siam.  The  Grevadilla,  a large 
and  strong  herbaceous  climber,  with  handsome  bine 
and  yellow  flowers,  is  a Passionflower  indigenous  in 
Southern,  and  also  probably  in  Central  and  Eastern 
Siam.  It  grows  to  an  immense  size,  climbing  up  and 
covering  the  highest  trees  and  has  a green  fruit  some- 
what resembling  a vegetal^le-marrow  in  shape  and  size  ; 
it  is  considered  by  some  to  be  good  eating.  Other 
species  of  Passionflower  are  indigenous  and  two  or  three 
foreign  varieties  are  acclimatised  in  the  country. 

The  CuGurhitacece  are  numerous  in  all  parts  of  Siam 
both  as  plants  cultivated  for  their  fruit,  and  wild. 
They  are  all  climbing  or  creeping  plants  and  the  fruit 
is  invariably  in  the  form  of  gourds  which  differ  con- 
siderably in  size  and  other  c[ualities.  Some  are  very 
large,  others  diminutive,  some  are  rough,  othei's 
smooth  ; some  long  and  thin,  others  short  and  thick  ; 
some  are  round,  others  pol^^gonal ; most  are  green  but 
some  are  red  or  yelloAv ; some  are  SAveet,  others  sour, 
and  some  are  uniA-ersally  eaten  AAdiile  others  are  rank 
poison.  Small  cucumbers,  differing  placentally  from 
the  European  A^ariety,  Snake-gourds,  Bottle-gourds, 
Pumpkins  and  AVatermelons  are  the  most  common 
edilffe  kinds.  Several  Avild  species  Avhich  abound  in 
old  hill  clearings  and  on  open  ground  near  the 
habitations  of  men,  have  brilliant  coloured  fruit,  one 
small  kind,  AAdiicIi  is  eagerly  deA'oured  l)y  l3irds,  bear- 
ing gourds  of  1)  right  crimson.  The  Angular  Luff  a is 
a])])arently  indigenous  in  Soutliern  Siam. 

The  order  Berjoniacece  is  represented  by  species 
indigenous  in  the  evergreen  forests.  A feAV  haA^e  been 
brought  under  cultivation  but  local  amateurs  prefer 
the  ready-made,  imported  varieties  and  the  iiatiA’es  are 


46 


SIAM 


therefore  neglected.  The  indigenous  species  have  not 
been  classified  and  new  varieties  doubtless  await 
discovery. 

Papayaeece. — The  Papaya  which  is  one  of  the  most 
common  plants  grown  in  the  villages  all  over  the 
country,  is  a native  of  tropical  South  America  and  the 
West  Indies.  No  plants  of  the  order  are  indigenous  in 
Siam. 

Cactacece. — Of  this  order  a tall  strong  columnar 
plant  with  many  deep  ribs  {Cereus  hexagonus)  is 
very  commonly  seen  round  villages  in  many  parts  of 
Siam,  where  it  is  grown  as  a hedging  plant  and  partly, 
perhaps,  for  the  beautiful  white  flowers  which  it  usually 
produces  in  some  profusion.  Though  very  widely 
dispersed  it  is  not  a native  but  is  of  American  origin. 
No  other  plants  of  this  order  are  found  in  Siam. 

The  Uwhelliferce,  though  a large  order,  appears  to 
be  scarcely  represented  in  Siam.  The  Fennel  is 
cultivated  and  there  are  a few  wild  species  Avhich  can 
be  recognised  by  the  inflorescence,  but  of  Avhich 
nothing  is  knoAAm  and  Avhich  possibly  have  not  yet 
been  named. 

The  order  Riihiacece  includes  the  Ixora,  native  of 
Southern  Siam  and  cultivated  as  a garden  floAver  in  all 
parts  of  the  country.  One  indigenous  species  has 
])ale  salmon-coloured  inflorescence,  another  red  and  a 
third  white.  The  cultivated  varieties  are  of  every  shade 
of  yelloAv,  pink  and  red.  The  Gambir  of  commerce 
(Siamese  Slii-ziet)  is  a plant  of  this  order  indigenous 
in  Siam  Avliere  it  is  also  cultivated,  the  yellow  dye 
Avhicli  goes  by  this  name  in  commerce  being  an  extract 
obtained  by  boiling  the  lea\^es  of  the  plant.  The 
Gardenia,  a plant  of  this  order,  is  much  groAvn  for  its 
fragrant  white  flowers  but  is  not  indigenous  in  Siam. 
Cinchona  and  Coffee  both  belong  to  the  Rubiacece  but, 
though  grown  in  the  country,  are  not  natives. 


FLORA 


47 


Of  the  order  Gompositce,  although  many  species, 
including  Artichoke,  Sunflower,  Lettuce,  Aster,  Michael- 
mas Daisy,  Chrysanthemum,  Marigold,  Gaillardia, 
Cosmos,  Coreopsis  and  others,  are  cultivated  in  gardens, 
where  many  of  them  have  become  acclimatised  and 
whence  not  a few  have  escaped  and  become  wild,  yet 
but  a small  number  of  them  appears  to  be  indigenous 
ill  Siam.  About  a dozen  small  weeds  have  been 
enumerated,  having  blue,  white  or  mauve  flowers  and 
belonging  to  the  Tubular  sub-order,  but  no  conspicuous 
flowered  plants  have  been  met  with,  though  doubtless 
many  such  will  ultimately  be  brought  forward. 

Of  the  order  Plumhaginacece,  P.  capensis,  a foreigner 
Avith  handsome  flowers  of  pale  blue,  is  cultivated,  ivliile 
P.  rosea  and  P.  zeylanica  are  indigenous  in  Siam. 
The  nathn  mrieties  are  used  in  medicine  and,  being 
hardy  plants  and  capable  of  considerable  development, 
Avould  repay  cultivation  by  floiver  gardeners  iaAio, 
hoAvever,  neglect  them. 

The  Ehenaeeoe  is  an  order  represented  in  Siam  by 
seAnral  trees  useful  for  their  hard  timber  and  in  some 
cases  for  the  dye  vdiich  they  yield.  Diospyros  Kaki 
(Siamese,  Satorn)  which  belongs  to  this  order,  is  a fruit 
tree  very  commonly  cultivated  in  Central  and  Southern 
Siam  and  apparently  Avild  in  the  latter  locality.  It  has 
large  and  handsome  foliage  and  the  fruit,  about  the 
size  of  an  aj^ple,  has  tAvin  almond-like  stones  in  the 
middle,  a velvet  rind  of  a yelloAvish  russet  colour,  and 
flesh  of  the  consistency  of  a melon.  The  flavour  is 
insipid  to  the  European  palate  and  eAmi  the  Siamese 
find  the  fruit  more  pleasing  Avhen  prepared  Avith  sugar, 
coconut  milk,  etc. 

To  the  order  Styracece  belongs  the  Sty  rax  Benzoin,  a 
nati\n  of  Southern  Siam,  from  Avliich  Gum  Benzoin  is 
produced.  The  order  does  not  appear  to  be  otherwise 
represented. 


48 


SIAM 


The  order  Sapotacece  includes  Mi)}iusops  Kavhi,  a 
large  tree  native  of  Sontliern  Siam,  having  fine  olive- 
green  foliage  and  a small  yellow  fruit,  very  sweet  hut 
enclosed  in  a rind  containing  acrid  milky  juice.  Adiras 
Sapota  (Siamese,  Lamot  Fcirang)  is  much  cultivated 
for  its  fruit  which  is  accounted  one  of  the  best  in  the 
Far  East.  The  foliage  is  dark  green  and  in  appearance 
the  fruit  resembles  a potato.  It  is  not  native  of  Siam 
but  there  are  several  indigenous  species  of  the  sub- 
order, the  fruit  of  which,  however,  is  not  very  interest- 
ing. Dicliopsis  Gutta  and  other  species  of  the  same 
genus,  indigenous  in  the  forests  of  Southern  Siam, 
yield  the  gutta  percha  of  commerce. 

The  order  Oleacece  is  represented  by  Olea  fragrans, 
a shrub  with  white  jasmin-like  flowers,  small  and 
sweet-scented,  common  in  Central,  Eastern  and  Southern 
Siam.  A double-flowered  variety  (Siamese,  Mali)  with 
a heavy  fragrance,  is  much  cultivated  and  is  used  for 
making  gailands,  scenting  drinking-water  and  tea,  etc. 
This  variety  is  probabl}'  a native  of  China  but  has  long 
been  acclimatised  in  Siam. 

The  Apocipiacece  include  the  AUamandas,  Oleanders, 
Plumerias,  Vincas  and  the  Beaumontia,  all  of  which  are 
extensively  grown  in  Siamese  gardens  though  the  first 
two  do  not  appear  to  be  indigenous  in  the  country. 
Plumeria  acuminata  frangipani,  a peculiar,  much 
branching  tree  which  grows  to  a height  of  about 
fifteen  feet,  has  thick,  soft,  fleshy  limbs,  full  of  milky 
sap,  dark  green  lanceolate  leaves  gathered  in  tufts,  and 
bunches  of  pink}-white,  heavily  scented  flowers  borne 
at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  is  much  grown  in  gardens 
and  is  easily  propagated  from  cuttings.  It  is  a favourite 
plant  in  the  neighI)ourhood  of  Buddhist  temples  and  in 
jMohammedan  graveyards.  In  the  dry  weather  the  leaves 
all  fall  off  though  the  tree  continues  to  flower,  and  in 
this  coiiflition  it  has  a mournful  and  unattractive 


FLORA 


4!) 


appearance.  Of  Vinca,  the  Periwinkle,  two  species,  one 
Avhite  and  one  magenta  as  to  the  flowers,  are  found  on 
sandbanks  and  other  open  tracts  of  poor  soil,  sometimes 
covering  acres  of  ground  and  making  a brave  show 
with  their  almost  continuous  succession  of  blossom. 
Beaumontia  grandiflora  though  said  to  be  peculiar  to 
the  neighbourhood  of  Chittagong,  has  been  found, 
apparently  wild,  on  the  islands  in  the  Gulf  of  Siam  and 
on  the  mainland  in  Northern  and  Southern,  but  not  in 
Central,  Siam.  It  is  a strong  climbing  plant  growing 
to  great  size  and  is  much  prized  for  its  clusters  of 
large  creamy-white  floAvers. 

The  Asclepiadacecc  are  a large  order  of  which  many 
species,  including  Iloija  of  many  kinds,  Tlolostevnna, 
Calotropis  and  others,  are  indigenous  in  Siam.  Per- 
gidaria  odoratissima,  the  Tonquin  bean  or  West  Coast 
creeper,  is  much  cultivated  for  its  fragrant,  drooping 
clusters  of  small  yelloAA^-green  floAvers.  Cryptostegia 
grandiflora,  belonging  to  this  order,  a large  spreading 
scandent  shrub  Avith  purple  cup-shaped  floAvsrs  pro- 
duced in  pairs  is  also  a fairly  common  garden  plant 
and  has  been  found  Avild  in  Southern  Siam.  The 
Stephanotis,  a native  of  Madagascar,  and  a plant  of  this 
order,  thrives  in  Siam. 

The  order  SoJanacece  has  many  representatives.  The 
brinjal,  egg-plant  or  aubergine  (Siamese,  Macheiia)  is 
cultivated  in  maii}^  A-arieties  almost  all  over  the  country, 
AAdiile  closely  allied  Avild  species  inhabit  AA^aste  ground 
and  spring  up  as  Aveeds  on  cultivated  land,  bearing 
fruit  AAdiich  is  often  large  and  sometimes  of  very  quaint 
shape  but  nearly  alAA^ays  inedible.  One  variety  especially, 
a Aveed  of  Southern  Siam,  has  a large  golden  fruit 
coA^ered  Avith  regular  nodules  AA-hich  giA^e  it  a most 
surprising  appearance.  Another  species,  Solamiw 
macranthum,  a spreading  shrubby  tree,  has  clusters  of 
large  purple  floAvers  A\diich  change  into  a dirty  AAdiite 
D 


50 


SIAM 


after  fertilisation.  The  flowers  of  all  the  species  are 
very  like  those  of  the  potato  in  shape.  The  potato, 
S.  tiiherosum,  and  tomato  Ly coper simmi  eseulentum  (sub- 
order), are  not  indigenous  in  Siam.  The  genus 
Datura  is  represented  by  D.  alba,  a common  roadside 
weed  with  handsome  tubular  white  flowers,  and  D. 
fastuosa,  rather  less  common  than  the  last,  with 
immense  white  flowers  tinged  with  purple,  in  form 
resembling  three  or  four  candle  extinguishers  projecting 
each  a little  out  of  the  other.  Englishmen  in  India 
call  this  plant  the  Hose-in-hose.  The  Daturas  have 
handsome  foliage  and  thorny  fruits.  They  yield  an 
extract  which  in  small  doses  jiroduces  intoxication  and 
in  large  is  a deadly  poison.  Nicotiana,  the  Tobacco 
plant,  is  extensively  cultivated  in  all  parts  of  the 
country,  as  are  many  varieties  of  Capsicuvi  or  Chilli. 
A small  wild  Chilli,  excessively  pungent,  is  indigenous 
in  Siam. 

The  order  Convolmdacece  is  represented  by  an  immense 
number  of  plants,  all  climbers  or  creepers  and  many 
oiaiamented  with  very  beautiful  flowers.  Ipovwea  Batatas 
the  sweet  potato,  is  cultivated  in  every  village.  lp>omoea. 
macrorrhiza,  is  indigenous  in  all  parts  of  the  country 
and  is  often  to  be  seen  covering  large  trees  with  the 
masses  of  its  bright  purplisli-crimson  flowers.  I.  Pes- 
caprae,  the  Goatsfoot  Convolvidus,  spreads  itself  over 
the  sandy  soil  near  the  sea-shores  of  Southern  Siam,  in 
trailers  of  immense  length  and  bears  handsome  pink 
ilowei’S  at  all  seasons.  1.  liederacea,  a delicate  climber 
with  large  pale  blue  flowers,  is  common  on  waste  ground. 
Argyreia  nervosa,  a powerful,  scandent  shrub  with  large 
pale  mauve-pink  flowers  is  cultivated  on  trellises  in 
Bangkok.  Quainodit  vulgaris  is  apparentl}^  indigenous 
and  is  also  common  in  gardens  wliere  its  very  delicate 
foliage  and  small  vivid  red  flowers  are  ]uuch  admired. 
The  Moon-flower,  with  large  Avhite  fragrant  flowers 


FLORA 


51 


opening  at  nigiit,  is  also  used  as  a garden  ornament. 
A host  of  other  species  Avith  flowers,  some  large  and 
handsome,  others  tiny  and  nnconspicnons,  abound 
eA^erywhere  except  in  the  deep  evergreen  forests.  They 
spring  np  in  deserted  clearings  as  if  by  magic  and 
AAdierever  a fence  is  made  or  a stake  driven  into  the 
ground,  a coiiAmlAnilus  of  some  kind  Avill  very  shortly 
be  found  climbing  upon  it.  Many  varieties  have  neA^er 
been  identified  and  some  of  them  are  possibly  as  yet 
nnknoAAm  to  the  Botanical  Avorld. 

The  order  Boraginacece  contains  the  Indian  Heliotrope, 
an  nnpretentions  Aveed  AAntli  small  lilac  bine  floAvers 
arranged  in  a scorpioid  inflorescence — one  of  the 
most  common  plants  in  Siam.  It  is  in  floAA^er  at  all 
seasons  and  prefers  rubbish  heaps  and  spots  AAdiere  the 
soil  is  rich  and  dry. 

Lahiatce.  A large  order  containing  the  Mint,  Sage, 
Marjoram,  Basil  and  the  Colens  Avhich  can  all  be  groAvn 
in  Siam  but  are  not  indigenous.  There  are,  lioAveA^ei’, 
many  Siamese  species,  common  as  A\xeds  in  all  parts. 

The  order  Verhenacece  is  represented  by  a large 
number  of  plants  of  Avidely  different  general  appearance. 
There  are  many  sx)ecies  of  the  genus  CJevodeudron, 
common  in  Southern  and  Central  Siam.  C.  squaw atuui 
is  a jungle  x>lant  AAotli  stem  rising  some  three  feet  above 
the  ground  and  bearing  a parasol-like  expansion  of 
rich  green,  heart-shax)ed  leaves  surmounted  by  a head 
of  blossom  like  a mass  of  Imight  red  corah  C,  Tliomsoiiae, 
a pretty  little  climber,  is  much  admired  by  the  Siamese. 
The  Congea,  a poAA^erfnl,  scandent  ])lant  indigenous  in 
all  x:»arts  of  Siam,  groAvs  to  the  to]3s  of  high  trees  AAdiich 
it  covers  Avith  its  curious  but  effective  dull-red  Innctiole 
blossoms.  The  ^dant  is  common  in  tlie  loAA^er  districts 
of  North  Siam,  Avhere,  in  January  and  February,  it  is  a 
striking  feature  of  the  jungle.  But  tlie  chief  Siamese 
representatiA^e  of  this  order  is  the  Teak  tree  AAdiicli 


52 


SIAM 


grows  profusely  in  the  deciduous  forests  of  the  north 
and  furnishes  one  of  the  best  and  most  durable  timbers 
known. 

The  order  Scroiohiilariaceo^  is  not  largely  represented 
in  Siam  and  such  plants  as  there  are  have  not  been 
examined  or  classified. 

There  are  several  species  of  the  smiall  order 
Utrieulariaceoe  indigenous  in  Siam  where  they  live  in 
the  marshes  of  the  Central  Plain  in  great  numbers. 
They  are  floating  plants  with  small  bladders  attached 
to  the  sul^merged  leaves  and  their  flowers,  which  are 
produced  during  the  rainy  season,  are  white,  blue  or 
yellovr. 

Many  of  the  larger  trees  of  Siam  belong  to  the  order 
Bicpioniacece.  These  have  usually  large  dull  red 
flowers  and  pinnate  foliage.  Their  wood  is  generally 
soft  and  white  and  of  no  particular  value.  Some 
climbing  shrubs  of  the  order  have  been  introduced 
into  the  country  for  the  sake  of  their  handsome 
flowers. 

To  the  order  Pedaliacece  belongs  the  Sesamum  of 
commerce,  two  varieties  of  which  are  cultivated  in 
Siam.  Other  rei^resentatives  of  the  order  are  not 
known. 

The  order  Acanthacecc  is  represented  by  herbs  and 
shrubs,  many  of  Avliich  have  very  beautiful  flowers. 
Thunhergia  grandi flora,  indigenous  in  all  parts  of  the 
country,  is  a strong  climbing  plant  with  fine  heart- 
shaped  foliage  and  wide-expanded  pale  blue  flowers 
carried  on  long  drooping  spikes.  T.  laurifolia  is  also 
a native,  with  habits  very  similar  to  the  last  but  with 
lanceolate  leaves  and  flowers  of  a darker  blue.  There 
are  several  species  remarkable  for  the  arrangement  of 
the  flowers  in  wheatear-like  heads. 

The  order  LorantJiaceoc,  genus  Viseiim,  the  mistletoe, 
has  two  species  common  in  Siam  as  parasites  growing 


FLORA 


53 


Upon  large  trees  of  all  kinds.  The  roots  are  firmly 
attached  to  the  host  beneath  the  bark,  and  a tree 
once  infested  by  this  jiest  soon  loses  its  strength  and 
dies.  The  seeds  are  covered  with  a viscid  X3ulp  which 
enables  them  to  adhere  to  the  twigs  of  trees  with  wliich 
they  come  in  contact  when  falling  from  the  parent. 

Of  the  order  Fiperacea?,  most  of  the  species  are 
indigenous  in  Sontliern  Siam  on  both  the  east  and  west 
sides  of  the  gulf.  Piper  P)etle  (Siamese,  Phlu)  is 
cultivated  extensively,  the  lear^es  being  used  for  chewing 
with  the  Areca  nnt.  The  x')lant  is  a vine,  grows  best  in 
the  shade  and  requires  a good  deal  of  water.  The 
leaves  are  a dee}3  glossy  green  and  liaAm  a x^leasaiitly 
X3imgent  aromatic  taste.  Of  P.  longiuu,  a similar 
X)lant,  the  dried  flower  s^iikes  are  known  as  long  jiepper. 
Piper  nigrum,  the  pe^Dper  vine,  (Siamese  Prik),  is 
cultivated  in  the  divisions  of  Piiket  and  CUiantabnri. 
At  one  time  all  the  }3ex3i)er  of  commerce  came  from 
Siam. 

The  order  Euphorhiaeece  includes  the  croton,  the 
castor-oil  X3lant  and  others  well  known  in  Siam.  Many 
sx3ecies  are  indigenous  notab  A E.  anti  quorum , a leaf- 
less cactus-like  tree,  very  common  on  ]3arren  uncultivated 
land  in  Xorthern  and  Eastern  Siam.  Some  vflld 
herbaceous  s}3ecies  strongly  resemble  the  English 
nettle  in  appearance,  flflie  tax)ioca,  much  cultivated  in 
Southern  Siam  and  re])orted  indigenous  tliere,  l3elongs 
to  this  order. 

The  order  Casuarinaeece  is  represented  by  G.  mmri- 
cata  AYliich  grows  on  the  sandy  seashores  of  Southern 
Siam  on  both  sides  of  the  gulf.  It  is  a tree  which 
attains  to  great  size  and  has  a hard  and  dural)le  wood 
which,  however,  has  not  hitherto  been  found  of  an}- 
particular  use.  The  young  ''oranches  present  the 
peculiar  apx3earance  of  the  branched  Equisetacear  flflie 
leaves  are  mere  scales  and  a tree,  at  a distance,  gives 


54 


SIAM 


the  effect  of  a firtree,  more  especially  when  the  sea 
hreeze  is  heard  songhing  through  its  branches.  Upon 
the  new  sandbanks  Avhich  constantly  form  round  about 
the  months  of  the  riA^ers  of  Sonthern  Siam,  the  Casiiaiina 
is  nsnally  the  first  plant  to  make  its  ax)pearance. 

The  order  Artoearpacece  includes,  of  Siamese  plants, 
the  Jackfrnit,  the  Breadfruit,  and  many  Figs.  The 
Jackfrnit,  (Siamese,  Kanoii)  is  to  be  found  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  most  Aollages,  and  is  easily  distinguished 
l)y  its  smooth  dark  foliage  and  pale  green  fruits  the 
size  of  a football,  borne  on  the  trunk  or  thicker 
branches.  The  Breadfruit,  (Siamese,  Sake)  is  less 
common,  and  is  mostly  confined  to  the  soiith.  Of  Figs 
the  most  remarkable  species  are  Ficus  I'eligiosa,  F. 
indica,  and  F.  elastica.  The  first  is  the  sacred  Boh 
tree  of  Buddhism,  and  is  common  in  Central,  Northern, 
and  Eastern  Siam,  AAdiere  it  is  found  round  about 
Aullages  and  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  most 
temples  and  jiagodas,  frequently,  in  fact,  groAAnng  upon 
these  last,  the  seeds  liaAong  been  dropjAed  by  birds  into 
cracks  in  the  masoniy.  F.  indiea,  the  Banyan  is 
common  in  the  forests  of  the  north  AAdiere  it  groAA^s  to 
an  immense  size.  F.  elastica  has  many  Amrieties 
common  in  the  jungles  CA^eryAAdiere,  but  more  especially 
in  Southern  Siam,  AAdiicli  yield  rubber  only  a little  less 
valuable  than  that  of  the  best  rubber-producing  trees 
of  the  AA'orld.  Of  other  Fig  trees  there  are  many  AAnld 
indigenous  species  all  of  A\diich  are  to  be  identified  by 
the  characteristic  structure  of  the  fruit.  In  some  the 
fruit  is  borne  on  the  trunk  or  thicker  branches,  in  others 
in  the  axils  of  the  leaA^es,  and  in  others  again  at  tlie 
liottom  of  tlie  trunk,  sometimes  almost  under- 
ground. The  fruit  of  many  sjiecies  is  edible  but 
is  usually  insipid. 

The  order  Lauracece  includes  the  Cinnamon  and 
( hmphor  trees,  the  former  groAAnng  to  great  size  in  the 


FLORA 


55 


evergreen  forests,  and  the  latter  apparently  confined  to 
the  Sonthern  districts.  The  hark  of  the  forest  Cinnamon 
tree  is  exported  in  large  thick  slabs. 

The  Nutmeg  of  commerce  is  obtained  from  a tree 
{Myristica  fragrans),  of  the  order  MyristicacecE  which 
is  very  conimonl}^  cultivated  in  Southern  Siam,  the 
Malay  Peninsula  and  Archipelago.  It  does  not,  however, 
appear  to  have  been  found  wild  on  the  mainland.  The 
seed  is  invested  by  a peculiar  integument  which 
develops  beneath  the  outer  shell  after  fertilisation,  has 
a netted  appearance  and  is  known  in  commerce  as  Mace. 

The  AmarantacecE  include  the  Cockscombs  and  Loi-e- 
lies-bleeding  which  do  well  in  gardens  in  Siam,  and 
also  a large  number  of  weeds  found  on  all  rough 
ground,  one  of  which  is  used  as  a sul^stitute,  a very 
poor  one,  for  spinach.  A . salicifoUus  is  grown  in 
gardens  for  its  striking  red  plume  of  drooping  leaves. 

The  order  Nyctaghiacem  does  not  a^jpear  to  have  any 
indigenous  representatives  in  Siam,  but  the  magnificent 
Bougainvillea  climbing  shrul3,  a South  American  plant, 
is  acclimatised  and  is  to  be  found  in  many  gardens. 

Axgiosperms.  Monocotyledonous  Orders.- — ^Of  the 
oy(\qy  Amaryllidaeece  the  genus  Amaryllis  is  not  very 
widely  represented  in  Siam  though  there  are  a fevc 
species  to  be  found,  more  especially  in  the  north,  the 
flowers  of  wliich  are  very  beautiful.  The  genus 
Cidnuin,  on  the  other  hand  lias  many  species  but  less 
handsome  flowers.  The  plants  of  the  latter  genus 
are  partial  to  damp  soil  in  the  neighbourhood  of  water, 
and  they  are  more  numerous  in  the  southern  than  in 
other  parts  of  the  country.  C.  asiatieum  is  ve]y 
common  and  frequently  attains  great  size.  Some  of 
the  rivers  of  Southern  Siam  are  fringed  with  it  for 
miles.  Many  smaller  species  liaise  been  noted  including 
one  with  large  pale  pink  flowers  a good  deal  after  the 
pattern  of  the  Amaryllis. 


56 


SIAM 


The  order  Dioscoridece,  which  includes  the  Yams,  has 
many  examples  in  Siam,  all  herbaceous  climbing  plants. 
Wild  species  are  found  in  the  jungles,  and  some  of 
them  have  tubers  which  are  considered  by  the  country- 
people  to  be  good  food.  Dioscorea  alata  and  D.  rubella 
are  much  cultivated  for  their  large  white  tubers. 

The  order  Brorneliacece  is  represented  by  the  Pine- 
apple only  ; imported  to  the  East  at  some  remote  date 
from  America,  and  now  naturalised  in  Siam  as  in  all 
other  neighbouring  countries,  it  is  one  of  the  commonest 
fruits  of  the  bazaars. 

The  order  Hydrocharidem  contains  only  aquatic 
herbs,  species  of  which  are  common  in  the  inland 
waters  of  Central  Siam.  Hydrilla  vertieillata,  a plant 
of  this  order,  is  used  in  sugar-refining. 

The  order  Scitaminem  is  one  of  the  most  widely 
diffused  in  Siam.  The  plants  are  all  herbs,  very  often  of 
robust,  arborescent  nature.  The  sub-order  Zingiheracece 
includes  the  Ginger,  Cardomums,  Curcumas,  Alpineas, 
and  others,  species  of  which  grow  wild  in  great  pro- 
fusion, sometimes  covering  large  areas  as  forest 
undergrowth,  while  many  are  cultivated.  Most  of  the 
plants  have  fine  handsome  flowers  and  all  are  aromatic. 
The  sub-order  Marantaeeoe  includes  Ganna,  Arrowroot 
and  Sital,  all  indigenous  in  the  country.  Of  wild  Ganna 
there  are  apparently  two  species  only,  one  having  green 
leaves  and  small  yellow  flowers  and  the  other  copper 
coloured  leaves  and  red  flowers.  It  is  from  these 
insignificant  plants  that  the  hundreds  of  beautiful 
varieties  now  to  be  seen  in  this  part  of  the  world  have 
been  evolved.  The  sub-order  Musacece^  is  represented  by 
the  Banana  or  Plantain  and  allied  species.  There  can 
be  little  doubt  that  the  Plantain  is  indigenous  in  Siam, 
for  it  is  frequentl}^  encountered  in  a wild  state,  with 
quite  inedible  fruit  in  the  evergreen  forests  and  in 
other  localities  whither  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  it 


FLORA 


57 


can  have  escaped  from  cultivation.  Many  of  the 
innumerable  varieties  which  are  cultivated  may,  how- 
ever, have  been  introduced  from  abroad.  The  genus 
Heliconia  is  grown  in  gardens  for  its  foliage.  Urania, 
the  Traveller’s  Palm,  is  also  used  as  a garden  ornament. 

The  order  Orchidece  is  represented  in  all  its  sub- 
orders, species  of  Epidendrece  and  Vanda  being  the 
most  numerous.  The  deciduous  forests  of  the  north, 
and  the  forets  dairieres  of  the  east  are  the  regions 
where  they  chiefly  abound,  great  areas  of  jungle  in 
these  parts  being  aflame  with  the  colour  of  their 
blossoms  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year.  In  Central 
and  Southern  Siam  the  order  is  not  so  well  repre- 
sented, but  many  varieties  of  Vanda  thrive  in  the 
former  locality  while  both  Vanda  and  species  of 
' Uendrobium,  a genus  of  Epidendrece,  are  common 
in  the  latter,  especially  I>.  angidatum,  the  Pigeon 
Orchid,  which  flowers  every  two  or  three  months. 
Though  the  Orchids  of  Siam  are  apparently  very 
similar  to  those  of  Burma,  which  have  been  so 
well  described  by  Bartle,  Grant  and  others,  yet  a 
careful  study  of  them  ^vould  be  a labour  of  the  greatest 
interest  and  value,  and  would  probably  bring  many 
new  A^arieties  to  light. 

The  order  Liliaceee,  considering  the  great  number  of 
sub-orders  and  species  A\diich  l^elong  to  it,  is  not  well 
represented.  Perhaps  the  commonest  Avild  species  is 
Gloriosa  superha,  AAdiich  is  to  be  seen  toAA^ards  the  end 
of  the  dry  season  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  rains,  a 
delicate  climbing  plant,  frequenting  the  hedges  and 
scrub  jungle  of  Central,  Xorthern  and  Eastern  Siam, 
the  A^ery  beautiful  red  and  yelloAv  perianth  of  its 
blossom  making  a dash  of  bright  colour  against  the 
surrounding  foliage.  The  Indian  Aloe  and  the  Onion 
family,  belonging  to  this  order,  are  groAvn  in  all  parts 
of  the  country  but  it  is  not  clear  that  any  of  the  species 


58 


SIAM 


are  indigenous.  On  tlie  slopes  of  the  higher  mountains 
of  the  north  a tall  and  graceful  lily,  with  several  large 
yellow  flowers  at  the  top  of  a leafy  stem,  is  common 
during  the  early  part  of  the  dry  weather. 

The  F ontedeviacece  are  aquatic  plants  of  which  one 
species  with  small  blue  flowers  borne  on  a long  stem 
and  at  the  foot  of  a large,  leafy  bract  is  ver,y  abundant 
in  the  marshes  and  inland  waters  of  Central  Siam. 

The  Commelinaeece  include  Cyanotis,  a prostrate 
plant  with  purple  leaves  and  stem,  and  Tradeseantia, 
or  Spider-wort,  varieties  of  both  of  which  appear  to 
be  indigenous  amongst  the  damp  undergrowth  of 
the  evergreen  forests. 

The  order  Palmar  is  a very  large  one  and  is  well 
represented  in  Siam,  more  especially  in  the  South. 
The  Coconut  Palm  of  many  varieties  thrives  exceedingly 
in  all  the  seaside  districts  of  Southern  Siam,  but  does 
not  do  veiy  well  in  other  parts.  The  Palmyra  or 
Sugar  Palm,  on  the  other  hand,  flourishes  in  Central 
and  Eastern  Siam,  where  both  sugar  and  the  intoxicant 
known  as  Tari  or  Nam  Tan  is  extracted  from  it,  but 
is  not  often  seen  in  the  South.  The  delicate  and 
graceful  Areca  Palm  is  common  in  most  parts  and 
many  species  closely  allied  to  this  last,  grow  wild 
in  much  profusion  in  Southern  Siam  and  are  much 
sought  after  by  amateurs  for  the  beauty  of  their  foliage. 
Another  wild  kind  furnishes  the  clnb-rooted  stems 
which  are  sold  under  the  name  of  ‘Penang  Law}^er.’ 
The  Nihong,  whose  tall  thin  stems  grow  in  clumps, 
each  one  surmounted  by  a large  tuft  of  very  gracefully 
drooping  pinnate  leai^es,  is  a handsome  Palm,  a native 
of  Southern  Siam,  where  it  is  extensively  used  in 
house  construction.  The  genus  Calamus  or  Ratan 
has  species  among  the  commonest  of  jungle  plants  in 
all  parts  of  the  country,  but  more  especially  in  Southern 
Siam  where  there  are  upward  of  twenty  varieties. 


FLORA 


59 


Some  of  these  grow  to  immense  length  and  thickness 
and  all  are  of  commercial  value,  though  one  or  two 
species  command  a mnch  higher  price  than  the  others. 
Their  handsome  pinnate  leaves  being  arjned  with 
sharp  thorns  and  their  habits  being  scandent,  the 
Ratans  interlace  themselves  with  other  trees  and  tlins 
form  the  impenetrable  tliickets  which  are  characteristic 
of  many  Siamese  forest  districts.  The  fruits  of  some 
species  are  eaten  but  are  neither  wholesome  nor 
very  palatable.  The  Sago  Palm  grows  wild  in  great 
profusion  in  the  inland  creeks  of  Southern  Siam, 
but  the  Sago  produced  from  it  is  not  of  the  first  order. 

The  Fandanaceae  include  the  Screwpines  and  the 
Kipa,  both  indigenous  in  Siam.  Of  the  former  several 
species  are  used  for  weaving  very  beautiful  boxes, 
mats,  baskets,  etc.,  which  are  made  from  strips  of  the 
long  strap-like  leaves.  Some  grow  far  inland  but  the 
commonest  kinds  are  found  on  the  seashore,  one, 
Avhich  flourishes  on  all  the  beaches  of  Southern  Siam, 
being  remarkable  for  its  large,  golden,  pineapple-like 
fruits,  which  hang  beneath  the  spreading  branches  of 
the  tree.  The  plant  is  sometimes  used  for  hedging  in 
the  rice  fields.  The  fruit  is  not  edible.  The  leaves 
of  this  order  are  spirally  developed  on  the  stem, 
Avhence  the  name  Screwpine,  and  wben  young  the,y 
have  a pleasant,  penetrating  odour.  The  Nipa  grows 
wild  in  a fringe  along  all  the  brackish  creeks  and 
rivers  of  the  littoral  districts  of  the  countiy.  It 
presents  the  pinnate  leai^es  of  a Palm  and  the  in- 
florescence of  a Pandanus.  Though  it  has  no  visil)le 
stem  its  foliage  is  A^ery  liandsome  and  is  a considerable 
factor  in  the  scenery  of  the  maritime  districts.  The 
fruit  is  eaten  and  is  also  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  a strong  intoxicating  drink . The  leaAXs  are  largely 
used  for  thatching. 

The  order  Aroideae  include  the  Ai'iim,  Cidadium  and 


60 


SIAM 


other  similar  genera.  A large  number  of  species  of 
Arum  grow  wild,  frequenting  dark  shady  spots.  In 
fields  and  gardens  they  are  among  the  first  weeds  to 
appear  and  the  most  difficult  to  eradicate.  They  are 
of  all  sizes  and  man}^  of  them  have  large  and  beautiful 
foliage  though  the  characteristic  inflorescence  consist- 
ing of  minute  flowers  borne  on  a spadix  and  sheathed 
in  a spathe,  is  usually  uninteresting.  The  stems  and 
corms  of  more  than  one  species  are  used  as  food. 
Varieties  of  Caladium,  some  indigenous  and  some 
foreign,  are  cultivated  for  their  foliage. 

The  sub-order  Pistaeeo?  compasses  aquatic  plants  float- 
ing free  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  Pistia  Stratiotes, 
sometimes  called  the  water  lettuce,  a circular  plant 
with  bright  green  leaves  rising  about  three  inches 
above  the  surface  of  the  water  and  having  a mass 
of  filamentous  roots  depending  below,  is  very  abundant 
on  the  waters  of  Central  Siam,  d’he  appearance  of  this 
plant,  often  in  large  and  compact  masses,  floating  on 
the  current  of  the  main  rivers,  is  a sure  sign  of  rising 
waters  in  the  interior  for,  with  the  first  swelling  of  the 
meres  and  marshes  where  it  grows,  thousands  of  plants 
are  floated  out  and  find  their  way  into  the  rivers,  a 
process  which  continues  so  long  as  the  Avater  is  rising 
and  reaching  further  out  over  the  land.  Minute  plants 
of  the  order  Lemnacece,  some  Avith  roots  and  some  AAoth- 
out,  form  the  green  scum  to  be  seen  on  stagnant  pools 
at  certain  seasons. 

Another  floating  plant  AAdiich  appears  in  great 
quantity  on  the  rising  Avaters  of  the  rivers  is  Eielihornia 
speciosa,  the  Water  Hyacinth  (Siam.  Pak  Jawa)  AAffich 
groAvs  in  great  abundance  on  all  inland  AA^aters,  and, 
Avlien  in  floAver,  covers  the  entire  surface  of  marshy  pools 
Avith  its  beautiful  mauve  flower-spikes.  The  inflor- 
escence is  A^ery  fugitiA^e,  lasting  a feAV  hours  only  and 
AAdien  faded,  the  flower  stem  immediately  turns  doAAui 


FLORA 


61 


under  water,  apparentl}^  in  order  that  the  seed  may  not 
become  dry  and  so  die.  Curiously  enough,  however,  the 
plant  does  not  pro2:>agate  itself  from  seed  but  by  offsets. 

The  arrow-head  leaves  of  Sagittaria  Sagittifolia,  a 
plant  of  the  order  Alismaceae,  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
marshy  lands  of  most  parts  of  the  country  and  other 
species  of  the  various  genera  of  this  order,  which 
includes  the  Rushes,  are  common. 

The  order  Cyperaceae,  including  the  Sedges,  is 
numerously  represented.  The  Carex  replaces  grass 
on  wet  ground  and  a tall  Sedge,  called  in  Siamese 
Yah  Song  Kratiem,  infests  the  rice  fields  of  Lower 
Central  Siam  to  an  extent  which  sometimes  seriously 
interferes  with  agriculture,  the  plant,  unless  its  roots 
are  most  carefully  removed  from  the  soil  before  seed- 
sowing, springing  up  with  great  rapidity  and  choking 
the  young  rice. 

The  order  Grooniineae,  the  plants  of  which  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Sedges  by  their  hollow,  jointed 
stems,  is  a large  one  and  includes  a great  number  of 
Siamese  plants,  ranging  from  the  giant  Bamboo  to  the 
most  diminutive  grass.  Of  the  domesticated  genera, 
besides  rice  which  is  grown  in  vast  quantities  in  eveiy 
district,  maize,  millets  of  several  kinds  and  sugar-cane 
are  largely  cultivated.  Wheat,  Barley,  Oats  and  Rye 
are  cereals  unknoAvn  to  Siam,  though  the  first  Avould 
probably  thriA^e  if  cultiAmted  in  the  north.  The  Bamlioo 
of  Avhich  there  are  many  A^arieties,  is  put  to  an  extra- 
ordinary number  of  uses,  supplying  the  material  for 
house-building  and  almost  all  domestic  utensils  of  the 
peasantr3v  I'he  3:oung  shoots  are  also  used  for  food. 

Gymnospekms. — Of  the  three  orders  contained  in  this 
group,  Gnetacece,  Coniferce  and  Cycadacea^,  the  first  is 
unrepresented  in  Siam  and  the  other  tAvo  liaA^e  a]>parently 
only  one  species  each.  On  tlie  higher  lands  near  the 
northern  frontier  a large  kind  of  fir  tree  is  found,  and 


62 


SIAM 


in  Southern  Siam  one  kind  of  Cycad,  a curious,  short, 
fern-like  tree  with  a thick  stem,  is  fairly  common  in  the 
deep  jungles. 

Cryptogams. — The  Vascular  Cry'ptogaws. — Ferns  are 
few  in  Central  and  Eastern  Siam  and  in  the  north  are 
largely  confined  to  the  evergreen  forests.  In  Southern 
Siam,  however,  they  are  numerous  as  individuals  though 
even  here  the  species  are  not  many.  The  most  notice- 
able is  a coarse-branched  Polypodium  about  three  feet 
in  height,  which  covers  the  ground  in  many  localities 
after  the  manner  of  bracken  and  is  found  in  large 
jiatches  sometimes  of  many  acres  in  extent.  Other 
Polypodia,  Hart’s  Tongues,  a few  species  of  Adiantum 
(Maiden  Hair)  and  many  large-growing  and  curiously 
shaped  arboreal  ferns  are  common.  A species  of 
Lycjodium,  a graceful  climbing  fern,  is  very  common  in 
the  south,  as  is  also  a handsome  climbing  Selaginella, 
a moss-like  plant  with  a curious  metallic  sheen  on  its 
green  leaves  in  certain  lights,  probably  S.  hieolor,  which 
grows  rampant  in  the  shady  glades  and  orchards. 

Mnscinece.- — Ileyond  the  fact  that  many  species  exist, 
very  little  is  known  of  the  mosses  of  Siam.  They 
occur  in  all  parts  of  the  country  but  more  especially 
in  the  evergreen  forests,  and  in  Southern  Siam  where  the 
a]3sence  of  a dry  season  is  fai^ourable  to  their  existence. 
It  is  probable  that  all  the  species  found  in  tropical  India 
are  represented.  Most  of  the  large  forest  trees  are 
infested  with  them,  those  on  the  tops  of  the  northern 
mountains  and  in  other  particularly  damp  localities 
Ijeing  frequently  draped  with  the  long  weepers  of  the 
coarser  kinds. 

ThaUophytes. — This  group  comprises  the  Algm  and 
Fungi  of  wliidi,  thougli  they  abound  in  all  parts  of 
Siam,  no  more  seems  to  be  known  than  of  the  Mosses. 
Of  a\Iushrooms,  edible  and  otherwise,  the  bracket-shajoed 
Polypori,  the  Puft'-ljalls,  Earth-stars  and  other  species 


FAUNA 


63 


are  evident  to  tiie  casual  observer  and  tlie  same  may  be 
said  of  many  of  tlie  lesser  kinds  of  Fungi  wliicli  attack 
deca};ing  animal  and  vegetable  matter  and,  during  tlie 
rainy  season,  find  a lodgment  on  boots,  books,  and  in 
other  similar  places  where  their  presence  adds  to  the 
trials  attending  hnman  existence.  As  regards  the 
lowest  orders  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  tlie  Bacilli, 
Bacteria,  etc.,  a Bacteriological  Laboratory  at  Bangkok 
is  making  explorations  and  investigations  amongst 
these,  wliich  may  be  expected,  to  gii^e  valuable  informa- 
tion as  to  the  identity,  nature  and  habits  of  the  forms 
present  in  Siam. 


Fauna 

The  study  of  the  Fauna  of  Siam  has  liitherto  been 
almost  entirely  neglected  and  no  book  dealing  exten- 
sively with  the  subject  has  ever  been  written.  The 
works  of  Mason  and  Oates  on  Burma  and  of  AVallace 
on  the  Mala}^  Archipelago  have  no  counterpart  in  Siam 
thongli,  had  the  ill-fated  French  naturalist  Mouhot 
lilted  to  complete  his  explorations  and  to  coinjiile  a 
record  of  his  observations,  this  want  would  doubtless 
have  been  supplied.  As  it  is  the  notes  of  Mouhot, 
Haase,  and  Fischer,  and  random  papers  by  other  more 
or  less  enthusiastic  amateurs,  constitute  the  only 
literature  on  the  subject,  which,  from  the  geograxihical 
position  of  the  country,  is  undoubtedly  one  of  great 
scientific  interest  and  importance. 

In  vieiv  of  this  paucity  of  ai^ailable  information,  it 
is  impossible  here  to  attempt  more  than  a brief  enumera- 
tion of  the  most  noticeable  species  of  the  various 
orders,  based  upon  the  above  mentioned  fragments  and 
upon  the  intermittent  investigations  of  an  untrained 
observer. 


64 


SIAM 


Mammals 

The  order  Quadrumana  is  re j) resented  by  one  genus 
of  ape,  several  of  monkeys  and  one  of  lemur.  The  white- 
handed  Gribbon  {Hylohates  Lai”)  is  an  anthropoid  ape, 
about  three  feet  high,  tailless,  with  very  long  arms  and 
legs,  the  adult  males  black  or  ochre-brown  and  the 
females  and  young  white  or  grey,  and  is  common  in 
the  remoter  jungles.  The  black  Gibbon  (H.  Hoolok) 
closely  resembling  the  white-handed  Gibbon  in  all  but 
colour  is  also  found  in  most  parts  of  Siam,  but  is  less 
common  than  the  latter.  Of  the  Macaques  there  are 
at  least  five  sjDecies,  the  most  common  being  the  Crab- 
eatiiig  monkey  found  everywhere  near  the  sea  shore, 
the  little  brown-grey,  long-tailed  monkey  and  the  red- 
brown  short-tailed  monkey.  All  these  three  have  cheek 
pouches. 

Of  the  ‘Langurs’  {Semnopitheeus)  two  species  are 
known  and  probably  many  more  exist.  The  ‘ Lutong  ’ 
is  fair]}"  common  and  grows  to  great  size  and  strength. 
The  ‘ Langurs  ’ have  no  cheek  pouches. 

The  single  specimen  of  Lemur,  a small,  tailless, 
nocturnal  animal  Avith  sharp  nose,  very  large  eyes,  soft 
fur  and  a long  sharp-pointed  nail  on  the  index  finger 
of  one  hand,  is  \"ery  common.  Gibbons,  Macaques, 

' Langurs  ’ and  the  Lemur  are  all  frequently  kept  in 
captivity.  The  first  are  remarkable  for  their  absurd 
exhibitions  of  affection  toAAurds  human  beings,  the 
second  and  third  are  trained  in  the  south  to  pick 
coconuts,  and  the  Lemur  is  popularly  supposed  to 
be  gifted  Avith  second  sight  and,  as  its  name  ‘ Ling 
Lorn’  (Wind  Monkey)  indicates,  to  have  in  particular 
a mysterious  sympathy  Avith  the  Avind,  for  AA"hich  reason 
a specimen  is  frequently  carried  on  board  native 
sailing  craft. 

The  order  Carnivora  is  represented  by  many  species 


MAMIMALS 


65 


of  Cat,  two  or  tliree  of  Bear,  three  of  Dog  and  one  Otter.. 
The  cats  inclncle  the  Tiger,  Leopard,  a tree-leopard, 
and  several  smaller  ‘cats,’  a Tiger  Cat,  a Wild  Cat,  a 
small  but  very  heautifnl  Leopard  Cat,  a Fishing-Cat 
and  probably  some  others.  The  Domestic  Cats  of  Siam 
are  of  two  species  ; one  very  small,  brindled  and  having 
a peculiar  twist  in  the  tail  in  the  form  of  the  letter 
Z.  The  other  is  larger  ’with  a straight  tail  and  bine 
eyes,  and  is  of  a light  fawni  colour  shading  into  deep 
sepia  at  the  points.  The  first  is  common  thronghont 
India,  the  second  is  peculiar  to  Siam,  and  is  much 
sought  after  b}^  European  connoisseurs.  The  Tree 
Cat,  the  Palm  Cat,  the  Lesser  Civet  (Vwerm  Basse),  a 
black  and  gray  striped  animal  sometimes  four  feet  long, 
and  a small  red-brown  relative  of  the  last,  are  all 
common.  The  Bears  are  the  small  Malay  Bear  and  the 
Slotli^ — or  Indian — Bear.  The  Himalayan  Black  Bear 
probably  also  occurs  in  the  mountains  of  Northern 
Siam. 

The  Domestic  Dog  is  the  widel}'  distributed  pariah. 
The  other  species  of  Dog  are  the  Jackal  and  Wild  Dog, 
both  very  rare.  The  species  of  Otter  is  that  common 
throughout  the  Oriental  Region. 

The  order  Insect ir ora  consists  of  several  species. 
All  are  small  animals  and  most  are  of  nocturnal  habits. 
Three  species  of  Mole  have  been  recorded  and  an 
ecpial  number  of  Shrews,  one  of  the  latter  being  veiw 
common  and  emitting  a strong  odour  of  musk.  The 
so-called  Fljdng  Lemur,  {Galeopitheeiis  volans)  wdiich 
does  not  proj)erly  fly  and  is  not  a Lemur,  belongs  to 
this  order.  It  has  been  found  in  nearly  all  parts 
of  Further  India  and  in  the  Iilalay  Archij^elago  and 
is  fairly  common  in  Siam.  Its  peculiarity  consists 
in  a lateral  extension  of  the  skin  on  both  sides  of  the 
body  into  a loose,  furry  membrane  attached  to  its 
limbs,  neck  and  tail ; this  membrane,  wdien  the  limbs  are 
E 


66  SIAM 

extended,  forms  an  aeroplane  on  which,  the  animal 
glides  through  the  air. 

The  order  Cheiro'ptera  is  well  represented.  Some 
twenty  species  of  Bat  have  been  noted  but  there  are 
probably  many  more.  The  largest  is  the  Flying  Fox, 
very  common  in  all  parts  of  the  country  but  more 
especially  so  in  the  neighbourhood  of  those  places 
where  fruit  is  largely  grown.  The  Flying  Fox  is  a 
true  Bat,  has  very  fine  black  fur,  changing  to  red 
round  the  neck,  and  often  exceeds  three  feet  in 
measurement  from  tip  to  tip  of  its  extended  wings. 
It  has  to  a great  extent  lost  its  insectivorous  habits, 
subsisting  mainly  on  fruit.  Many  hundreds  may  often 
be  seen  together  after  sunset,  making,  with  slow  and 
heav}^  flight,  for  the  orchards  where  fruit  is  ripening. 
Bowring  remarks  that  the  enormous  numbers  of  Flying 
Foxes  round  Bangkok  entirely  obscured  the  evening 
sky  when  they  passed  over  the  city,  and  brought  on 
a darkness  as  of  night,  but  Sir  John  was  always 
poetical.  Although  this  animal  is  known  to 
naturalists  as  Pteropus  editlis,  it  is  not  sought  as  an 
article  of  food  in  Siam.  It  is,  however,  occasionally 
eaten  there  when  found  dead  or  killed  accidentally. 
There  are  several  other  species  of  fruit-eating  bats, 
but  only  one  of  them,  {Gynopterus  marginatus)  about 
the  size  of  a thrush,  is  common.  The  Sheath-tailed 
Bat,  an  insect-eater,  is  very  common,  large  numbers 
of  them  inhabiting  old  temples  and  caves,  where  they 
alternately  quarrel  and  sleep  all  day  and  whence  they 
issue  at  sundown,  intent  on  fly-catching.  The  floors  of 
some  of  the  caves  in  the  Malayan  Provinces  and  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Korat  are  covered  with  a layer 
of  bats’  dung  several  feet  thick,  which  makes  an  excellent 
manure  and  which  also  provides  the  salt-petre  from 
which  the  country  people  manufacture  gunpowder. 
At  least  three  species  of  Horseshoe  Bat  (Rhinolophus 


MAMMALS 


67 


sp.)  are  known  and  also  one  species  of  Leaf  Bat  (probably 
Megaderma  spasma).  The  smallest  Siamese  Bat  is 
a little  yellow  animal  strongly  resembling  a large 
butterfly  when  on  the  wing.  It  is  not  often  fonnd 
near  the  haunts  of  men  but  frequents  forests  and  the 
dark  aisles  of  the  Elephant-grass  jungle. 

Other  members  of  the  order  of  Insect!  v^ora  which 
occur  in  Siam  include  the  Shrew,  a small  species, 
probably  the  common  Garden  Shrew,  being  fairly 
common  and  the  Rat-tailed  Shrew  {CvocAdura  myosura) 
very  much  so.  The  latter  in  its  night  wanderings 
frequently  finds  its  way  into  dwelling-houses  where 
the  shrill  and  strident  chattering  and  the  equally 
penetrating  musky  odour  which  it  emits,  more  than 
counterbalance  the  good  which  it  does  in  devouring 
cockroaches  and  other  insects. 

There  are  many  species  of  the  order  of  Rodents 
in  Siam.  A small  grayish-brown  squirrel  is  very 
common  in  all  gardens,  and  six  other  species  have 
l^een  observed,  most  of  which  remain  unclassified. 
A black  squirrel  with  white  belly  has  been  found 
measuring  nearly  four  feet  in  length,  to  which  dimensions 
the  tail  contributed  considerably  more  tlian.  half.  A 
pure  white  squirrel  is  also  known.  A small  species 
with  mouse-coloured  fur,  small  ears,  thin  tail  and 
with  yellowish-brown  stripes  extending  from  the  snout 
over  each  eye  to  the  base  of  the  ears,  is  a common 
garden  pest  in  and  around  Bangkok,  where  it  may 
often  be  seen  pursuing  investigations  of  its  own  even 
in  the  interior  of  dwelling-houses.  All  squirrels  in 
leaping  from  tree  to  tree  spread  their  limbs  to  the 
fullest  extent,  thereby  flattening  themselves  and  obtain- 
ing some  degree  of  support  from  the  air.  In  the 
Fl^dng  Squirrels,  of  which  the  Taguan  {Pteromys 
petaurista)  and  two  or  three  other  species  are  known 
in  Siam,  the  surface  thus  presented  is  much  increased 


68 


SIAM 


by  the  extension  of  the  skin  between  the  fore  and 
hind  limbs,  enabling  the  animal  to  make  long  flights 
or  glidings  through  the  air  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  Flying  Lemur. 

Rats  and  Mice  abound  in  Siam.  The  Brown  Rat 
is  very  common  and  attains  a great  size.  The  Burmese 
Rat  is  also  found.  A large  species  has  recently  been 
noted  in  Southern  Siam  which  has  not  been  identified 
and  is  probably  new.  The  slow-moving  Bamboo  Rat 
is  often  met  with  and  a long-tailed  Tree  Mouse  has 
heen  obtained  at  Chantahuri.  The  rattle-tailed  species 
■of  Porcupine  is  common  and  this  nocturnal  animal 
does  much  damage  to  crops  planted  in  jungle  clearings. 
A second  species  of  Porcupine  with  flattened  bristles 
and  long,  scaly  tail  is  also  occasionally  met  with. 
Rabbits  are  not  found  in  Siam  but  one  species  of 
Flare  is  fairly  common. 

The  order  Edentata  is  represented  in  Siam  by  one, 
or  possibly  two,  species  of  Pangolin  or  Scaly  Ant-eater, 
a curious  little  animal  with  long  narrow  body,  short  limbs 
and  a sharp  nose,  the  whole  upper  surface  of  the  body, 
including  head  and  tail,  protected  by  hard,  overlapping, 
horny  scales,  and  the  underneath  part  thinly  covered 
with  hairs.  It  is  a terrestrial,  burrowing  animal  which 
rolls  itself  into  a ball  and  emits  a disgusting  odour 
when  attacked.  It  is  eaten  by  the  country  people  and 
is  considered  a delicacy. 

The  order  Ungulata  or  Hoofed  Animals  contains  the 
Indian  Elephant,  sometimes  placed  in  a separate  order 
Proboscidea,  which  is  still  fairly  common.  Warington 
Smyth  has  remarked  a variation  of  this  Elephant  found 
on  the  strip  of  land  which  separates  the  waters  of  the 
Gulf  of  Siam  from  those  of  the  inland  sea  of  Singora. 
This  is  reddish  in  colour,  does  not  exceed  eight  feet  in 
height  and  has  remarkably  small  head  and  feet.  The 
variation  has  probably  resulted  from  long  confinement 


MAJMMALS 


GO 


to  a small  area  imder  peculiar  natural  conditions.  The 
odd-toed  Ungulates  include  a small  species  of  horse, 
two  species  of  Rhinoceros,  single-horned  and  double- 
horned,  and,  in  Southern  Siam,  the  interesting  piebald 
Malayan  Tapir,  an  animal  not  known  in  Asia  outside 
the  Indochinese  region.  This  last  is  a large,  swamp- 
haunting  beast  with  slightly  elongated  and  prehensile 
snout,  of  peaceful  disposition  and  nocturnal  habits.  The 
piebald  markings  do  not  vary  in  position,  every 
individual  having  black  head  and  shoulders  and  white 
rump.  The  even-toed  Ungulates  are  represented  by  one 
sx3ecies  of  Pig,  four  s}3ecies  of  Cdievrotain,  six  s^iecies 
of  Ueer  and  seven  of  horned-cattle  including  sheeii  and 
goats.  The  Pig  is  the  Indian  Wild  Pig,  and  is  very 
widely  distributed,  the  domestic  pig  of  Siam  being 
apparenth"  descended  from  it  v:ith  a crossing  of  the 
Chinese  domesticated  pig.  The  Chevrotains  are 
commonly  called  Mouse-deer  and  are  a distinct  family 
allied  both  to  the  Pig  and  the  Deer.  The  four  known 
sx)ecies  differ  very  little  from  each  other.  The  largest 
is  less  than  eighteen  inches  high  and  the  smallest  is 
considerably  less  than  a foot.  Uone  of  them  liaiu 
antlers  or  horns,  but  the  males  are  armed  with  small 
tusks.  The  true  Deer  comx^rise  the  following  : the  Mnntjcic 
or  Barking  Deer,  two  sx)ecies,  a red  animal  with  a wliite 
belly,  short  antlers  set  on  high  bony  excrescences,  and 
haA'ing  dee^^ly  marked  lines  doAAu  the  sides  of  the  face, 
the  males  bearing  short  tusks  ; the  Ilog-deer  ; tlie  Eld’s 
or  BroAA'-antlered  Deer,  Avith  a tine  of  each  antler  x^ro- 
truding  doAvnwards  and  outvrards  f^efore  the  broAV  ; the 
Schomburgk  Deer,  a handsome  animal  Avitli  much 
branched  antlers  found  only  in  Siam,  ami  finally  the 
IvAvang,  Rusa  (Malay)  or  Sambar  (Hindi),  Aury  common 
and  the  largest  sx^ecies  in  the  country,  The  Indian 
Bison  or  Gaur  is  found  in  the  remoter  mountains.  Tlie 
Banting  or  AVild  Ox  is  fairly  common  in  the  south. 


70 


SIAM 


The  wild  BuiTalo,  closely  allied  to  the  domestic  species^ 
is  said  to  have  been  seen.  The  domestic  cow  is  of  the 
small,  humped  Indian  variety.  The  Goat-Antelope  has 
frequently  been  secured  and  is  the  same  as  that  found 
in  the  Malay  States,  in  Burma,  and  in  the  Himalyas. 
A domestic  sheep  is  bred  in  the  Southern  Provinces 
only,  and  domestic  goats  of  mixed  breed  are  fairly 
numerous. 

The  order  of  Cetaceans  is  represented  by  two  sjiecies 
of  Dolphin  which  occur  in  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  and  the 
order  Sirenia  by  the  amphibious  Dugong,  which  has 
been  found  on  the  coasts  of  Southern  Siam  and  of 
Chantaburi.  There  is  evidence  that  the  existence  of 
this,  one  of  the  strangest  of  mammals,  was  known  to 
AVestern  naturalists  many  centuries  ago,  their  informa- 
tion, gleaned  from  the  tales  of  imaginative  travellers, 
leading  them  to  endow  the  animal  with  semi-human 
qualities  and  to  suppose  it  to  be  a sort  of  Merman.  The 
characteristics  which  w^ere  apparently  responsible  for 
their  opinion,  were  the  short  nose,  small  rounded  head 
and  square-shaped  shoulders  which,  wdien  the  beast  is 
seen  from  a distance,  half  submerged  in  water,  give  it 
a somewhat  human  aspect ; also  the  pectoral  position  of 
the  mammae  and  the  great  affection  evinced  for  the  young 
of  which  only  one  is  produced  at  a birth.  Possibly 
also  the  theory  of  the  Siamese  that  the  lost  souls  of 
dead  and  damned  fishermen  find  a habitation  in  the 
bodies  of  Dugongs,  may  have  had  something  to  do 
wdth  the  idea.  The  animals  are,  however,  of  the  most 
phlegmatic  and  cowlike  disposition,  browsing  peacefully 
upon  marine  A^egetable  growth  in  the  shallows  of  estuaries, 
or  lying  ruminating  on  the  shore  near  b}^,  quite  un- 
troubled by  anything  in  the  shape  of  semi-human 
aspirations.  The  males  are  armed  Avith  short  tusks, 
suppressed  in  the  females.  The  lengtli  of  a full-groAAui 
Dugong  is  from  eight  to  ten  feet  ; the  skin  is  thick, 


BIRDS 


71 


black  and  comparatively  hairless,  the  bod}^  contains  a 
considerable  amount  of  blubber  and  the  meat  is  much 
like  beef. 


Birds 

Siam  possesses  a large  number  of  s^^ecies  of  birds 
re]Dresenting  many  families.  No  attempt  has,  however, 
been  made  to  compile  a complete  list  of  them  and  very 
little  has  been  recorded  concerning  any  but  those  most 
commonly  seen.  A brief  enumeration  of  some  of  these 
last  is  all  that  is  undertaken  here. 

Order  Passeres. — The  House  Crow  is  extremely 
common  in  all  towns  and  villages  except  in  Southern 
Siam  where,  for  some  reason,  it  is  comparatively  rare. 
The  Jungle  Crow,  a larger  bird,  is  also  fairly  common. 
Magpies  occur  in  the  north.  The  Laughing  Thrush,  a 
beautiful  white  and  brown  bird,  is  found  in  flocks 
in  the  deep  jungle,  where  its  loud  note  as  of  garrulous 
talking  often  surprises  the  traveller.  Several  species 
of  Bulbul  are  common.  Certain  long-tailed  brown 
birds,  common  in  India  where  they  are  called  the 
‘ Sat  Bhai  ’ (seven  brothers)  because  the,y  are  (errone- 
ously) supposed  to  go  in  flocks  of  seven,  hauiit  the 
outskirts  of  villages,  as  does  the  Crow  Pheasant,  or 
Coucal,  a rusty  red  and  black,  long-tailed  bird, 
continually  crying  ‘Foot,  Foot.’  Amadavats  and 
Rice  Birds  swarm  in  the  rice-fields  where  they  are 
trapped  by  hundreds  and  the  common  SiDarrow  is 
ubiquitous  but  there  are  few  other  Finches.  The 
jet  black  King-Crow  or  Racket- tailed  Drongo  is  often 
seen,  the  Bird-of-Paradise  Fly-catcher,  with  its  beautiful 
droojiing,  white  tail-plumage,  more  rarely.  A small, 
pied  Fantail  {Rliipidura)  is  very  common  and  is 
constantly  to  be  seen  catching  flies  on  the  wing,  at 
the  same  time  performing  complicated  aerial  gyrations, 
thereby  apparently  combining  j^leasure  with  business. 


72 


SIAM 


A green  and  russet  fly-catcher,  with  two  long  tail 
feathers,  is  very  common  by  the  rivers,  breeding  in 
holes  excavated  in  the  banks.  The  Tailor-bird  and 
other  warblers  are  many,  although  like  most  members 
of  this  family  the}^  do  not  warble  conspicuously.  Of 
the  Starling  family  Golden  Orioles  are  sometimes  seen 
and  Mynas,  of  which  there  are  three  species,  are  very 
common.  The  handsome,  black.  Wattled  Mynah 
(Grackle)  becomes  very  tame  in  captivity  and  is 
easily  taught  to  speak.  The  peculiar  bottle-shaj)ed 
nests  of  the  Weaver-Bird  are  often  seen,  usnall}^ 
many  together,  hanging  from  the  drooping  ends  of 
the  branches  of  trees.  Of  Swallows  and  Martins  there 
are  many  species,  the  most  remarkable  being  two  or  three 
allied  species  of  little  Rock  Martin  or  Swift,  the  nests 
of  which,  constructed  entirely  of  a gelatinous  substance 
secreted  by  the  crop  of  the  bird,  and  built  among 
precipitous  rocks  on  the  coast,  are  taken  and  exported 
to  China  as  the  delicacy  known  as  Edible  Bird’s-nest, 
incidentally  producing  a considerable  Government 
revenue.  Two  or  three  species  of  small  grey  Shrikes 
are  common.  The  Cuckoo-Shrike  is  often  seen  and  the 
little  Swallow  Shrike  has  ]3een  observed.  The  Pied 
Robin  is  frequent  in  gardens. 

Order  Picarlae. — There  are  many  species  of  King- 
fisher in  Siam,  the  Pied  Kingfisher  being  perhaps  the 
most  common,  though  a large  species  wdth  orange  beak 
and  l^lue  and  red  body,  which  apparently  feeds  on  land 
insects  and  is  often  seen  far  away  from  w^ater,  is  also 
very  abundant.  The  Woodpeckers  are  also  a large 
family,  usually  of  gorgeous  plumage  and  ahvays  of 
noisy,  (luarrelsome  disposition.  The  Night-jars  are 
numerous  and  can  be  seen  at  mglitfall,  flitting  through 
open  glades  or  sitting,  parallel  wdth  the  branch,  on 
the  stouter  limbs  of  trees.  To  these  last  are  allied  the 
Swdfts  of  wdiich  there  is  one  species  known.  The 


BIRDS 


73 


Toice  of  tlie  ‘ Ice-bird  ’ is  beard  in  the  land  during 
hot  weather  evenings,  at  which  season  also  the  ‘ Copper- 
smiths,’ (Siamese  ‘ Chang  Tong  ’)  not  the  Indian  ‘ Copper- 
smith ’ — maintain  an  anvil  chorns  far  into  the  night. 
These  two  last  are  Night- jars.  The  Indian  Ivo-il  is 
common  and  reiterates  ‘ Who  are  you,’  with  rising- 
cadence,  with  as  much  persistence  in  Siam  as  elsewhere. 
The  Roller,  or  Bine  Jay,  is  seen  everywhere  and  the 
little  green  Barbet,  the  Indian  ‘ Copxiersmith,’  with  the 
red  face,  is  heard  hooting  through  the  heat  of  the  day 
and  may  sometimes,  though  more  rarely,  be  seen  peering 
from  a hole  in  a dead  tree.  A long-tailed  Barbet 
frequents  the  shady  thickets  round  the  villages  and 
its  cry  of  ‘ Kawow  ’ is  knoAvn  to,  and  imitated  by,  every 
Anllage  child.  Of  Hornbills  there  are  three  species 
haunting  the  deeper  forests  and  both  the  broAvn  and 
spotted  Hoopoe  are  sometimes  seen  in  the  more  ojien 
parts  of  the  country. 

Of  Doves  and  Pigeons  BveWe  species  IiaAm  been 
noted,  including  Bine  Rocks  which  breed  in  the  eaves 
of  temples.  Ring  Doves,  Bronze  Doves,  Golden  DoA^es, 
iSpotted  Doves,  the  large,  Grey  Pigeon  and  the  Green 
Pigeons,  and  there  are  probably  many  more.  Ring- 
doves are  kept  in  cages  in  almost  eA^ery  house,  good 
specimens  being  much  sought  after  and  commanding 
high  prices.  The  species  of  Green  Pigeon,  particularly 
that  AA-^ith  tAvo  long  red  tail-feathers,  resemble  parrots 
in  many  AA'ays.  Siam  is  not  rich  in  parrots.  Tavo  or 
three  species  of  Parrakeet,  notably  the  Rose-ringed 
Parakeet,  are  common  in  the  north,  but  the  only 
specimen  seen  in  Southern  Siam  is  a small  green 
Lorikeet  Avith  a red  back,  but  little  larger  than  a 
sparroAv. 

The  Birds  of  Prey  include  a sjiecies  of  ATiltnre,  the 
common  Kite,  the  Brahmany  Kite,  the  Whiteheaded 
Osprey,  the  SparroAV  Hawk,  the  Peregrine  Falcon  and 


74 


SIAM 


many  lesser  Hawks.  There  are  many  Owls  varying 
much  in  size  but  all  of  similar  habits  and  not  greatly 
differing  in  colour.  The  smallest  owl  is  no  larger 
than  a thrush. 

The  Cranes  are  few  in  number.  The  hideous,  bald- 
headed  and  high-smelling  Adjutant  Bird  which  feeds 
on  carrion,  and  the  Pelican  Ibis,  are  found  in  the  plains, 
and  the  magnificent  Sams  Crane,  six  feet  high,  with 
mauve  plumage  and  red  head,  are  often  seen  in  pairs 
in  the  valleys  of  the  north. 

The  Herons  are  well  represented.  White  Herons  of 
many  species,  collectively  known  as  Padi-birds,  nest 
in  great  numbers  in  the  trees  near  the  rice  fields.  The 
Egret  which  produces  beautiful  white  feathers  at 
breeding  time,  is  one  of  these.  The  Solitary  Grey 
Heron  is  found  in  the  marshes  and  several  kinds  of 
Bittern  are  known.  The  Waders,  Sandpipers,  Curlews, 
Coots  (including  the  Jacana),  Plovers  and  Snipes  are 
also  numerous.  The  Pintail  Snipe  is  very  abundant 
from  August  to  December  or  later,  in  Central  Siam, 
The  Painted  Snipe  is  also  present.  The  Carbuncled 
Plover  with  spur  wings,  haunts  the  fields  along  the 
edge  of  the  jungle,  only  desisting  from  his  favourite 
occupation  of  duelling  to  circle  round  the  head  of  the 
chance  snipe-shooter,  exclaiming  loudly  ‘ Did-ye-do  ’ 
until  all  the  shooting  in  the  neighbourhood,  as  well 
as  the  temper  of  the  sportsman,  is  quite  spoilt.  A 
Golden  Plover  is  found  near  unfrequented  ponds  and 
sandpipers  swarm  on  the  brink  of  every  pool.  Gulls 
and  Terns  abound  on  the  coast. 

The  Gallinaceous  birds  include  the  Jungle  Fowl,  from 
which  the  different  varieties  of  domestic  fowl  were 
originally  derived  ; the  Pea  Fowl,  the  Argus  pheasant, 
Silver,  Fireback  and  many  other  pheasants  ; the  lesser 
Chinese  Francolin  or  Tree  Partridge,  and  several  kinds 
of  Quail. 


REPTILES 


75 


Of  web-footed  birds  the  Pelican  frequents  the  plains, 
more  especially  at  flood  time,  and  is  often  captured  and 
domesticated.  Cormorants  of  two  or  more  species  abound 
on  all  the  rivers.  Frigate  birds,  Gannets,  and  Petrels 
are  seen  in  the  gulf,  and  various  kinds  of  Duck,  the 
Brahmany  Duck,  the  Mallard,  the  Whistling  Teal,  the 
Cotton  Teal,  and  others  occur,  though  not  in  the  vast 
numbers  common  in  the  north  of  Further  India. 

Reptiles 

The  Reptiles  of  Siam  do  not  differ  much  from  those 
of  India  and  Burma.  The  Chelonian,  Crocodilian, 
Lacertilian,  and  Ophidian  groups  are  all  represented 
but  the  large  number  of  species  known  to  exist  have 
not  yet  been  scientifically  examined  or  classified. 
Among  the  Chelonians  are  the  Snapping  Tortoise,  an 
aquatic  animal  with  a long  neck  and  a soft  shell,  the 
name  of  Avhich  is  derived  from  its  habit  of  snapping 
fiercely  at  anything  which  comes  near  it ; the  Ilawksbill 
Turtle,  valuable  on  account  of  its  shell  and  for  its  eggs, 
remarkable  for  the  length  of  its  flappers  and  often  seen 
in  the  Gulf : the  Loggerhead,  common  in  the  southern 
rivers  ; several  species  of  amphibious  Tortoise,  includ- 
ing one  with  a long  tail  and  large  head,  all  hardshelled 
and  armed  with  claws,  and  one  or  more  Land  Tortoises. 

Of  Crocodilians  two  species  are  known,  Crocodilus 
Porosus  the  great  crocodile  of  India  and  C.  Siamensis  a 
near  relation  of  the  Indian  Marsli  Crocodile  or  ‘ Muggar.’ 
The  former  is  found  in  most  of  the  rivers  but  is 
gradually  being  exterminated.  This  species  prefers  tlie 
brackish  water  near  tlie  mouths  of  the  rivers,  sometimes 
attains  to  over  twenty  feet  in  length  and  very  rarely 
does  harm  either  to  man  or  beast.  The  C.  Siamensis 
inhabits  the  inland  marshes  of  central  and  the  lower 
part  of  Northern  Siam  and  is,  in  parts,  very  commom 


7G 


SIAM 


At  Sawaiikalok,  far  inland,  crocodiles  are  kept  in  a 
tank  in  one  of  tlie  temple  grounds,  and  are  said  to  be 
hundreds  of  years  old.  The  Gavial  probably  exists  in 
Siam  but  has  not  been  noted. 

The  Lacertilian  group  is  well  represented.  Amongst 
the  most  common  are  the  Geckos  of  which  four  species 
frequent  the  interior  of  houses.  The  largest  of  these 
often  exceeds  twelve  inches  in  length,  is  spotted  rather 
like  a trout  and  crows  loudly  with  a hoarse  voice 
whence  its  local  name  ‘ Toh-ke.’  The  other  Geckos  do 
not  exceed  five  inches  in  length.  All  these  have  the 
toes  flattened  into  suckers  which  enable  them  to  cling 
to  the  smooth  surface  of  rocks,  walls  and  ceilings.  The 
Tree  Lizards  are  of  many  species,  the  males  of  some  of 
which  are  crested,  whilst  those  of  one  species  have  the 
power  of  changing  'their  colour  from  inconspicuous 
iDrown  to  vivid  yellow  and  blue.  There  are  no  true 
Chameleons  in  Siam.  The  Flying  Lizards,  (genus 
Draco)  of  which  several  species  occur  in  Southern  Siam, 
belong  to  this  group.  These  last  frequent  coconut 
plantations  and,  by  means  of  wings  or  rather  aeroplanes 
formed  of  skin  attached  to  greatly  elongated  ribs,  and 
spread  out  or  folded  close  at  will,  glide  with  great 
velocity  from  stem  to  stem  among  the  palms.  The  grey 
colour  of  the  common  species  renders  them  inconspicu- 
ous when  at  rest,  but  they  reveal  their  presence  at  will 
by  the  sudden  inflation  of  a white  bladder  under  the 
throat.  A beautiful  species  of  vivid  green  is  sometimes 
met  with.  A smooth-skinned,  shining  Grass  Lizard, 
brown  above  and  yellow  underneath,  with  a l^lack  line 
along  each  side  from  the  eye  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  is 
common.  The  81ow-worm  without  legs  occurs,  as  also 
does  another  whose  legs  are  almost  rndimentary  and  ap- 
])arently  useless.  The  latter  is  rare.  Monitor  Lizards 
( Varanus)  are  common.  Tlie  largest  are  usually 
found  in  swampy  jungle  and  attain  a length  of  from 


REPTILES 


77 


five  to  eight  feet.  Several  smaller  species  are  arboreal. 
They  are  not  nsnally  eaten  in  Siam  but  a part  of  the 
liver  is  used  for  medicinal  purposes. 

Skinks  abound  on  dry  sandy  ground,  in  which  they 
burrow.  They  never  wander  far  from  home  and  when 
surprised,  dive  into  their  holes  with  extraordinary 
velocity  and  precision.  They  are  eaten  by  the  country 
people. 

Of  Ophidians  upwards  of  sixty  species  are  known  and 
probably  many  more  await  classification.  The  Python 
is  common  but,  though  said  to  attain  thirty  feet  in 
length,  is  rarely  found  over  twelve  feet.  The  Colubrine 
Snakes  are  very  numerous  and  include  the  common  Rat 
Snake  and  many  species  closely  allied,  the  Green  Whip 
Snake,  the  Ornate  Tree  Snake,  and  of  poisonous  snakes, 
the  Hamadryad,  the  Cobra,  the  Banded  Adder,  the 
Russell’s  Viper,  the  Green  Viper,  the  ‘ Krait,’  and  others. 
Two  little  Earth  Snakes  are  known,  both  blind  and 
harmless.  One  of  these  has  an  imitation  head  at  the 
end  of  its  stumpy  tail  which  it  exposes  when  attacked, 
meanwhile  concealing  the  true  head  beneath  its  coils. 
Many  of  the  non-poisonous  land  snakes  are  more  or 
less  aquatic  in  their  habits,  and  several  poisonous  species 
are  marine.  The  Siamese  imagine  all  snakes  to  be 
deadly,  though  in  reality  the  bite  of  only  one  species  in 
seven  of  those  which  occur  is  in  any  way  harmful. 

Batrachians 

This  order  is  represented  in  Siam  by  the  Frogs,  which 
are  very  numerous  both  in  species  and  individuals,  and 
by  a few  Toads.  The  commonest  Frogs  are  the  Edible 
Frog  (Rana  tirjrina),  the  Bull  Frog,  the  little  Green 
Frog  and  the  Tree  and  ‘ Flying  ’ Frogs,  the  last  two  with 
large  eyes,  long  delicate  hands  and  feet  (partly  webbed), 
andsuckertoes  ; they  have  marvellous  jumping  powers  but 


78 


SIAM 


small  judgment  of  direction  or  distance.  The  Common 
Toad  is  very  abundant,  and  Horned  Toads  are  known. 

Fishes 

The  fishes  of  Siam  both  marine  and  fresh-water,  are 
exceedingly  numerous,  and  constitute,  after  rice,  the 
chief  article  of  food  of  the  people.  For  the  supply  of 
Bangkok,  many  thousands  of  individuals  belonging  to 
species  which  may  be  counted  by  the  hundred,  are 
daily  brought  up  from  the  sea,  while  an  enormous 
number,  but  of  much  fewer  species,  are  supplied  from 
the  inland  waters.  A considerable  proportion  of  the 
population  lives  by  fishing,  and  fish,  dried,  canned 
and  pickled,  is  exported  in  large  quantities. 

Carnivorous  Sharks  are  common  in  the  gulf,  and  are 
of  seven  species,  some  attaining  great  size,  others,  as 
the  small  Hog  Fishes,  averaging  about  eighteen  inches 
in  length.  The  Hammer-headed  Shark  is  frequently 
caught  off  the  shores  of  Southern  Siam.  Zebra  Sharks 
and  Thresher  Sharks  are  less  common.  The  Saw  Fish 
with  snout  elongated  in  a long  flat  process  of  bone 
covered  with  skin  and  fringed  with  spikes  or  teeth,  is 
fairly  common,  and  is  sometimes  found  over  twenty 
feet  long.  Rays  and  Skates  abound  and  reach  enormous 
size.  The  Sting-Ray  with  flat  triangular  body  and 
long  bony  tail,  takes  long  leaps  out  of  water,  appearing 
almost  to  fly.  Beaked-Rays,  Devil-Fish  and  Eagle- 
Rays  are  all  fairly  abundant  and  an  Electric  Ray 
occurs.  The  catching  of  Sharks  and  Rays  and  Skates, 
which  are  all  used  for  food,  demands  particular  skill 
and  is  a close  profession. 

Salt-water  and  fresh- water  Eels  are  very  common.  Of 
(Ht-Fishes  with  large  heads,  smooth  skins,  and  long 
feelers,  there  are  many  species  which  vary  much  in 
size,  a small  A^ariety  being  one  of  the  most  common 
edible  fresh-water  fishes. 


FISHES 


79 


Flying-fislies  abound  in  tlie  waters  of  tlie  gnlf. 
There  are  many  species  of  Carp  and  the  Indian  Hilsa 
is  found.  Bream,  Red-Mullet,  the  Mango-Fish,  two  or 
three  kinds  of  Sole,  several  round-fish,  flattened 
longitudinally  (Pla  Chulamit),  the  Pla-Kapong  a fish 
of  salmon-like  appearance  and  habits,  and  two  or  more 
species  of  small  Pilchard  (Pla  Tu),  the  Horse-Mackerel 
and  the  Bat-Fish,  are  amongst  the  most  common  sea- 
hsh  used  for  food.  The  Spoon-Fish  (Pla  Chaun),  one 
of  the  Snake-headed  fishes,  is  very  common  in  the 
canals  and  flooded  rice  fields  of  the  interior,  and  is  one 
of  the  species  which,  when  the  water  dries  up, 
dives  into  the  mud  and  remains  there  below  the  dry, 
baked  surface  all  through  the  hot  weather,  emerging 
again  when  the  returning  rains  once  more  bring  the 
floods. 

Besides  the  above  there  is  a host  of  species  more 
remarkable  for  their  colouring  and  hal)its  than  for  their 
qualities  as  food.  Among  these  are  the  gorgeous  blue 
Emperor-fish ; the  Sucking-fish  which  attaches  itself, 
by  a sucker  on  the  top  of  its  head,  to  sharks  and  other 
big  fish,  apparently  for  convenience  of  travelling ; the 
Climbing  Perch  which  can  live  out  of  water  and  makes 
long  overland  journeys  ; the  Archer  fish,  which  brings 
down  flies  hovering,  or  seated  on  a leaf,  above  it,  with  a 
well-aimed  drop  of  water  shot  from  its  mouth  ; the 
Siren  fish,  which  attaches  itself  to  boats  and  other 
immersed  bodies,  and  can  be  heard  grunting  down 
below  with  ventriloquistic  effect  ; the  celebrated  Fight- 
ing-fish, a red,  pugnacious  creature,  about  two  inches 
long,  caught  in  the  marshes  and  kept  in  a glass  jar 
where  it  fights  terrific  duels  with  rivals  of  its  own 
species,  and  the  Mud-Skipper,  a scaleless  fish,  with 
lirotruding  eyes  and  with  the  xiectoral  fins  adapted  for 
walking,  b}^  means  of  which  it  is  in  the  habit  of  hojiping 
and  running  on  the  mud-banks  at  low  tide. 


80 


SIAM 


Invertebrates 

This  enormous  section  of  the  animal  kingdom  though 
well  represented  in  Siam  can  only  be  treated  very 
briefly  here.  The  Molluscs  include  many  LimjDets  and 
land  and  water  Snails,  and  several  species  of  Chiton. 
Among  Cephalopods  are  species  of  sepia  or  squid  and 
octopus.  In  the  month  of  April  a kind  of  small  squid 
swarms  near  the  shores  of  the  gulf,  and  immense 
numbers  are  caught  at  night  with  nets  and  torches,  and 
consumed  by  the  populace  with  much  immediate  relish 
and  subsequent  internal  discomfort.  The  Lamelli- 
branchiata  include  many  families  of  bivalves,  containing 
species  of  all  shapes  and  sizes.  These  are  generically 
termed  ^ Hoi  ’ in  Siamese  and  many,  including  a small 
oyster  and  a very  large  mussel,  are  excellent  food. 

The  Arthropods ' are  extremely  numerous  in  all 
branches.  Of  Crustaceans  there  are  several  species  of 
Prawn,  these  including  the  blue,  long-legged  freshwater 
variety.  The  common  lobster,  however,  is  absent.  The 
Crabs  are  largely  represented  ; Swimming  Crabs,  Land 
Cral3S,  Burrowing  Crabs,  Hermit  Crabs,  are  all  numerous 
and  are  of  all  shapes  and  sizes.  Two  species  of  the 
repulsive-looking  tailed  King-crab  or  Limiilus  are 
common  in  the  gulf.  A tiny  burrowing  crab  with  one 
claw  exaggerated  to  three  times  the  size  of  its  body 
and  the  other  suppressed,  infests  the  banks  of  all 
brackish  rivers.  The  Land  crabs  frequently  destroy 
large  areas  of  rice  crops.  Barnacles  and  other  parasitic 
crustaceans  are  common,  as  are  numbers  of  Phyllopods 
and  similar  tiny  animals.  The  Arachnid  a are  very 
numerous.  Species  of  the  Spider  family  are  found 
everywhere  on  land  and  in  water,  under  dead  leaves, 
in  fruit,  meat  and  in  all  putrid  animal  or  vegetable 
matter.  Numerous  forms,  such  as  the  ‘ itch  ’-causing 
animal  and  the  ‘tick,’  are  parasitic  upon  men  and 
animals,  and  many  species  are  of  microscopic  size.  The 


SCORPIONS  AND  SPIDERS  81 


Phalangids  with  their  long  slender  legs  which  come 
off  on  the  smallest  provocation,  are  represented  by 
several  species. 

Of  Scorpions  and  pseudo-scorpions  there  are  many 
species,  the  latter  being  all  very  small  and  scarcely 
noticeable  though  they  inhabit  houses  in  large  numbers. 
The  big,  black  scorpion  is  common,  as  are  two  species 
of  the  smaller,  brownish-grey  creature,  both  the  latter 
poisonous,  but  not  dangerously  so.  A harmless  dark- 
brown  scorpion-like  animal  with  non-flexible  tail,  found 
in  gardens  where  it  hides  under  flower  pots  and  in  other 
cool  corners,  is  probably  a Thelyphojius.  The  number 
of  species  of  Araneids,  or  true  Spiders,  is  very  great. 
Tarantulas,  House-spiders,  Green,  Blue,  White,  Red 
sjDiders,  Armour-plated  spiders.  Jumping  spiders.  Trap- 
door spiders,  are  all  common.  The  large  House-spider 
runs  down  his  prey  which  consists  of  cockroaches  et 
hoc  genus  omne.  The  Jumping  Spider  leaps  upon  his 
victim,  with  the  utmost  ferocity  and  precision  and  from 
an  incredible  distance.  Many  of  the  coloured  spiders 
lie  in  ambush  in  the  hearts  of  flowers  to  cajiture 
unwary  flies  in  search  of  honey.  A black  and  yellow 
spider  spins  a circular  web  so  strong  as  to  entangle  and 
hold  the  largest  beetles.  Some  of  the  yellow  spiders  are 
aerial  navigators,  sailing  the  air  on  windy  days  mounted 
on  a yard-long  thread  of  web  of  their  own  spinning. 

The  Insects,  by  far  the  largest  class  of  the  Arthropods, 
inhabit  Siam  in  vast  numbers.  All  the  nine  orders  are 
represented,  some  of  them  in  great  variety  of  species. 
Of  Bees,  the  great  Black  Boring  Bee,  the  Honey  Bee  and 
the  diminutive  creatures  which  live  in  colonies  in  the 
posts  and  walls  of  all  wooden  houses,  are  the  most 
common.  Wasps  and  hornets  are  very  abundant  and 
are  often  of  beautiful  colouring.  Many  of  these  build 
communal  nests  dependent  from  the  branches  of  trees 
or  from  the  undersides  of  leaves,  but  the  majority 
F 


82 


SIAM 


eitlier  deposit  their  eggs  in  small  holes  whieh  they 
afterwards  close  up  with  mud,  or  in  little  mud  cells 
which  they  build  in  corners  or  against  woodwork. 
These  species  all  place  a stock  of  food,  consisting  of 
various  animalculae,  in  the  cells  to  provide  nourishment 
for  the  larva  when  hatched.  The  commonest  form  of 
this  food  is  the  Grass  Spider,  half-a-dozen  of  which, 
captured  and  stung  to  a comatose  state,  are  placed  in 
the  cell  with  the  egg  and  remain  alive  until  eaten  by 
the  larva.  Many  wasps,  however,  prefer  green  cater- 
pillars or  crickets,  flies  or  even  bees,  as  food  for  their 
offspring,  all  of  which  are  captured  and  treated  in  the 
same  manner.  At  certain  seasons  of  the  year  dwelling 
houses  are  invaded  by  these  cell-making  wasps,  who 
fill  up  all  keyholes  and  persistently  plaster  their  little 
mud  cells  into  every  convenient  corner.  The  Ruby- 
tailed fly,  a handsome  green  wasp  with  a dash  of  red  at 
the  end  of  the  abdomen,  does  not  build  a cell  itself,  but 
deposits  its  eggs  in  the  cell  of  one  or  other  of  its 
cousins  just  before  the  last  piece  of  mud  is  applied  to 
close  up  the  aperture.  The  egg  thus  intruded  hatches 
into  a larva  which  not  only  consumes  all  the  food  placed 
in  the  cell  but  eats  the  rightful  occupant  as  well. 

The  species  of  ants  have  not  been  enumerated  but 
at  least  five  distinct  species  are  commonly  found  in  all 
dwelling  houses  where,  in  spite  of  continual  raids  upon 
fruit,  sugar,  etc.,  they  are  tolerable  on  account  of  their 
scavenging  propensities  and  of  the  interminable  war 
which  they  wage  against  cockroaches,  crickets  and  flies. 
The  big  Tree  Ants  or  Ivaringa,  live  in  nests  made  of 
leaves  stuck  together  with  a webby  substance,  are  very 
fierce,  and  deliver  a painful  sting.  Several  species  of 
large  black  ants  live  in  the  ground  and  one,  with  a red 
band  round  the  waist,  gives  a sting  almost  as  bad  as  that 
of  the  English  wasp.  The  Beetle  family  is  well  repre- 
sented. Stag-beetles,  Dung-beetles  and  Tortoise-beetles, 


INSECTS 


83 


Eliinoceros-beetles,  Soldier-beetles,  Glow-worms,  Wood- 
borers  and  many  kinds  of  Chafer  abonnd,  as  do  a 
number  of  minute  beetles  parasitic  upon  other  insects. 
Click-beetles  {Elaterido’)  which  when  lying  on  the  back 
apparently  helpless,  spring  violently  away  by  means  of 
a sudden  bending  of  the  body,  are  common.  Fire-flies 
{Lampi/ridce)  are  very  common  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the 
country  and  are  always  to  be  seen  at  night  either  singly 
or  congregated  in  large  numbers  in  and  around  some 
particular  tree  which,  by  what  is  evidently  concerted 
action,  they  illuminate  witli  flashes  of  light  repeated  in 
regular  pulsation.  Weevil  beetles  are  numerous  and 
some  species  are  very  large.  Ladyljirds  of  many  species 
are  also  common.  The  Siamese  beetles  are  of  all  shades 
of  colour,  black,  green,  blue,  yellow,  red,  brown,  either 
uniform  or  arranged  in  spots  or  stripes,  the  Moidiotia 
Gloriosa,  a veiy  large  black  and  red  Carahus,  being  one 
of  the  most  beautiful.  The  prosternum  of  the  different 
species  is  developed  into  all  manner  of  quaint  shapes 
and  sizes  and  the  antennae  into  all  sorts  of  lengths. 

Mosquitos,  Gnats,  Midges  and  ‘ Daddy-long-legs,’ 
House-flies,  Blow-flies,  Flesh-flies,  Bot-flies,  Gad-flies, 
are  all  unpleasantly  numerous  and  the  same  may  bo  said 
of  the  Flea  tliough  the  species  of  the  last  which  feeds 
upon  man  is  not  recognised  in  Southern  Siam. 

Butte-]  flies  aiid  Llotiis  are  of  many  orders  and  species. 
The  Xymphalidac  include  several  Jjanainae,  pretty 
insects  endowed  with  peculiar  odour-producing  glands 
wdiich  are  said  to  i^rotect  them  from  the  attacks  of  birds 
many  Fritillaries,  two  species  of  Kallima  or  Leaf  Butter- 
fly, so  called  from  its  extraordinary  resemblance,  when 
at  rest,  to  a dead  leaf.  Among  the  PcvpiUonidae  are 
many  relatives  of  the  British  Orange  Tips  and  a strong 
contingent  of  S\vallowtails.  The  other  families  are  also 
represented.  Siam  is  rich  in  Spliinx  Moths  including 
the  Death’s  Head  and  the  Gla.nt  Hawk.  Many  other 


84 


SIAM 


genera  are  represented  by  innumerable  species,  great 
and  small ; the  Tineina  or  Clotb-eating  Motbs  are 
numerous.  Many  Leaf-rolling  Moths  are  present  and 
species  of  glaucopis,  the  larvae  of  which  do  much  damage 
in  gardens,  are  common.  The  caterpillars  of  various- 
Geometer  species  are  very  numerous,  one,  an  orchid 
eater,  exactly  resembling,  when  stretched  out,  the 
epiphytic  rootlets  of  its  host.  The  Silkworm  is  exten- 
sive] y cultivated  in  Siam  and  a wild  Silkworm  resemb- 
ling the  Tussur  occurs  in  some  parts. 

The  order  which  includes  the  Caddis  Flies  is  repre- 
sented by  several  species  of  both  aquatic  and  land 
insects.  The  larvas  of  most  of  these  live  in  cases 
constructed  of  particles  of  the  material  most  easily 
obtainable,  fastened  together  with  a tough  web-like- 
Bubstance.  Some  of  the  cases  are  made  of  stones,  some 
of  scraps  of  dead  leaf,  some  of  little  bits  of  stick  and 
some  of  dust  found  in  the  corners  of  dwelling  houses. 
Mostly  the  occupants  carry  their  cases  about  with  them 
but  a few  are  stationary.  The  larva  of  an  Ant  Lion^ 
which  belongs  to  this  order,  is  common  in  the  dry,  line 
soil  under  raised  dwellings,  and  in  other  sheltered  spots. 
It  has  no  case,  but,  burying  itself  about  an  inch  in  the 
ground,  kicks  up  the  soil  until  a little  pit  is  formed,  at 
the  bottom  of  which  it  lies  with  its  strong  mandibles 
extended.  The  iinwary  ant  stepping  on  to  the  side  of 
the  pit  invariably  slips  on  the  loose  soil,  rolls  straight 
into  the  waiting  jaws  below  and  is  promptly  devoured. 

The  Locusts,  Crickets,  Mole-crickets,  Stick-insects, 
Mantis,  Earwigs,  Cockroaches,  White-ants,  Stone-flies, 
Dragon-flies  and  other  groups  included  in  the  order 
Oriho])tera,  comprise  the  most  abundant  forms  of  Insect 
Life  in  Siam.  Merely  to  enumerate  the  known  species 
of  the  Locusts  and  Crickets  of  all  shape,  colour  and  size, 
of  the  various  Mantis  from  the  minute  brovn.1  devourer 
of  microscopic  flies  to  the  five-inch  long,  green  monster 


INSECTS 


85 


witli  wicked  eyes  and  horrible  spiked  forearms  whose 
relentless  embrace  means  being  eaten  alive  to  even 
the  largest  of  insects,  of  the  Earwigs,  Cockroaches, 
White-ants,  and  the  hosts  of  Ephemeral  Flies  which 
embitter  human  existence,  and  of  the  gay  Dragon-flies, 
blue,  green  and  scarlet,  the  sla3^ers  of  Mosquitos,  would 
occupy  far  more  space  than  is  here  available  and  cannot 
be  attempted. 

Of  Bugs,  Siam  has  a large  variety.  Some  are  aquatic, 
others  land  insects ; some  suck  the  blood  of  animals,  others 
the  juices  of  plants  ; some  have  wings,  others  are  wing- 
less ; some  are  skippers,  others  not ; some  are  instru- 
mentalists like  crickets,  others  are  silent,  but  all  alike 
are  repulsive  to  the  eye  and  offensive  to  the  nose  of  man. 
One  of  the  large  common  bugs  is  a brown  monster 
about  two  inches  long,  armed  with  tivo  heavy  claws, 
with  a hard,  flattish  body  shaped  like  a triangle  from 
the  apex  of  which  an  acrid  and  most  villainous-smelling 
fluid  is  discharged  with  disconcerting  accuracy  at  the 
unwary  investigator.  The  Bed-bugs,  the  Cuckoo-spittle 
Bugs  and  the  Aphidae,  or  Plant-lice,  also  belong  to  this 
large  class. 

The  remaining  orders  of  Insects  are  represented  by 
several  species,  prominent  amongst  which  is  the  ‘ Silver 
Fish,’  which  eats  cloth  or  paper  without  discrimination 
and  is  usually  to  be  found  lurking  in  the  binding  of 
books. 

The  Myriapods,  the  last  of  the  Arthropod  group,  are 
represented  in  Siam  by  various  Chilopods,  some  of 
which  grow  to  great  size,  and  b}"  several  Diplopods. 
The  Chilopods  are  poisonous  centipedes  which  some- 
times attain  eight  inches  in  length  and  one  of  which  is 
highl,y  phosphorescent.  The  Diplopods  include  the 
Spiroholus,  a harmless  and  very  common  centipede 
which  rolls  up  when  disturbed,  and  relies  solely  upon 
its  unpleasant  odour  as  a means  of  defence,  and  man^" 


8G 


SIAM 


species  of  wcod louse.  The  Diploj^ods  are  all  vegetable 
eaters. 

Of  the  great  division  of  the  animal  kingdom  below 
the  Arthropods  sometimes  comprehensively  termed  the 
‘ iVpathetic  Animals,’  practicall}^  nothing  is  known  as 
regards  Siam.  Doubtless  Worms,  Radiarians,  Polyps 
and  Infusorians  are  as  numerous  there  as  elsewhere, 
but  for  want  of  knowledge  it  is  not  possible  to  do  more 
ihan  enumerate  the  more  evident  forms.  These  are  the 
earthworms,  intestinal  worms  and  other  allied  genera, 
the  leeches,  of  wdiicli  two  species  are  common,  sea 
Anemones  of  the  most  diverse  colours  and  shapes, 
Beche-de-mer,  wdiich  are  taken  in  large  numbers  in  the 
Gulf  and  are  much  prized  as  food,  and  sponges,  wdiich  are 
of  many  kinds,  as  well  as  Coralline  growths. 

Geology  and  Minerals 

A glance  at  an  orographical  map  of  Siam  reveals  the 
country  as  roughly  a plain  of  comparatively  low^  eleva- 
tion slopnng  away  southwards  and  eastwards  from 
mountains  on  the  West  and  North,  wdth  here  and  there 
a short  range  or  an  isolated  height  rising  above  the 
general  level.  The  great  range  on  the  west  extends 
almost  unbroken  from  the  extreme  south  of  the  kingdom 
in  the  Malay  Peninsula,  to  the  most  northerly  point, 
above  (diieng  Sen  on  the  river  J\Iehkong  and  thence 
continues  northwards,  through  the  British  Trans- 
Salwin  Shan  States  into  China.  The  wdiole  of  this 
great  range  appears  to  consist  of  the  remains  of 
enormously  thick  lime-stone  beds,  p)robably  of  thecarboni- 
ferous  age,  Avith  metamorphic  rocks,  gneiss,  micaceous 
and  siliceous  slates  and  other  schistose  formations  resting 
upon  granitenvhicli  is  highly  intrusiAm  and  to  the  action 
of  AAdiich  the  schists  are  doubtless  OAAung.  The  summits 
of  the  range  are  mainly  granite  and  the  slopes  and 


GEOLOGY 


87 


foot-hills  limestone.  All  throngh  the  Mala^mn  Provinces 
and  in  the  Ratbnri  district  this  is  the  case  bnt  below 
the  limestone  beds  in  the  last-named  locality  are  found 
hard  land  soft  sandstones,  probably  of  Devonian  age, 
thongh,  in  the  complete  absence  of  investigation  for 
fossils,  this  is  by  no  means  certain.  In  this  neighbour- 
hood the  limestone  l)eds  stand  np  highly  tilted  out  of 
strata  of  later  formation,  in  an  irregular  line  of  precipi- 
tous hills  parallel  with  the  main  range  and  assuming  all 
sorts  of  heights  and  grotesque  shapes.  Further  north, 
in  the  Raheng  district,  the  limestone  has  become  thicker 
and  forms  the  major  part  of  the  range,  the  granite 
appearing  throngh  it  less  often  than  in  the  south.  This 
is  also  the  case  in  the  Chieng  Mai  district  and  all  along  the 
range  to  Chieng  Sen  thongh  all  throngh  this  last  tract 
outcrops  of  the  underlying  sandstone  and  slates  are  met 
with.  In  many  parts  of  hs  length,  the  limestone  beds 
of  the  great  range  are  found  highly  ci\ystalline  and  in 
several  localities  a good  vdiite  marl)le  has  been  formed.. 

All  across  Northern  Siam  from  Chieng  Sen  down  to 
Pitsannlok  the  series  of  hill  ranges  lying  north  and 
south,  spurs  of  the  great  mountain  masses  of  the 
far  north,  present  vei\y  mncli  the  same  geological 
character  as  does  the  western  range.  Everywhere  are 
seen  highly-tilted  limestone  and  red-sandstone  ontcroxis 
throngh  vrhich  the  nnmerons  rivers  cut  their  v'ay,  with 
occasional  appearance  of  granite  and  the  accompanying 
metamorphic  formatioiis.  A basaltic  outcrop  occurs  in 
the  extreme  north  with  sapphire-bearing  gravel  in  close 
contiguity.  A series  of  vrell-defmed  faults  occurs  right 
across  this  district  in  a north-west  and  south-east 
direction,  dhvo  small  volcanic  vents  Avere  observed  Ip" 
AVarington  Smyth  near  Hongsawxadi,  vdiich,  in  LS03, 
were  mildly  active.  A consideral^le  amrnnt  of  alluvium 
covers  the  valleys  of  this  district,  composed  of  a cla^^ey 
soil  with  strata  of  cpiartz  sand. 


88 


SIAM 


The  geological  formation  of  Eastern  Siam  is 
peculiar.  Practically  the  whole  district  is  a shallow 
basin  contained  within  low  hills  of  limestone,  red  sand- 
stone and  laterite.  On  the  north  and  to  the  westward 
are  hills  of  between  one  and  two  thousand  feet  elevation, 
chiefl}^  limestone,  containing  calcite  and  quartz  in 
abundance,  with  granite  and  micaceous  schists  showing 
here  and  there  but,  east  of  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of 
Wieng  Chan,  composed  chiefly  of  red  sandstone  with 
conglomerate  occasionally  apparent.  Where  the  course 
of  the  Mehkong  turns  from  east  to  south  the  limestone 
again  appears  and  continues  to  form  a barrier  of  ever- 
decreasing  height  between  that  river  and  the  basin  of 
Eastern  Siam  until  the  junction  of  the  Nam  Mun  with 
the  main  river  is  reached.  Here  the  great  masses  of 
limestone  which  form  the  southern  boundry  of  Eastern 
Siam  begin,  and  thence  run  away  westwards  as  far  as 
the  Dong  Phaya  Yen  mountain,  overlooking  the  plains 
of  Central  Siam.  This  limestone  is  rich  in  calcite  and 
quartz  and  rests  upon  sandstone  beds,  the  outcrop  of 
which  is  frequently  met  with.  The  western  boundary  of 
Eastern  Siam  is  marked  by  limestone  hills  also,  in 
which  gold-bearing  quartz-veins  have  been  located, 
interspersed  amongst  sandstone  outcrops  and  beds  of 
laterite.  The  interior  of  the  basin  is  covered  with 
alluvium  in  which  lateritic  soils  and  quartz-sand 
prevail,  covering  laterite  beds  which  appear  to  be  of 
great  extent. 

Central  Siam  is  nearly  all  alluvium,  composed  of 
clayey  soil  with  strata  of  quartz-sand  deposited  upon 
limestone  beds  to  the  north  and  west  and  upon  a 
marine  sand  in  the  more  Central  parts.  Ever}?-  here 
and  there  limestone  obtrudes  through  the  alluvium,  as 
at  Chainat,  Prabat,  and  Kabin.  On  the  east  coast  of 
the  gulf  granite  appears  at  Anghin  and  at  several  sj)ots 
further  down,  as  Lem  Tun  and  Kaw  Kram.  Near  the 


GEOLOGY 


89 


latter  place,  an  island  close  to  tlie  mainland,  a submarine 
volcano  was  observed  in  activity  by  Monliot  in  1860= 
Still  further  down  the  coast  the  great  mountains  of 
Kao-Sabab,  Kao  Sai  Dao  and  almost  the  whole  of  the 
Patat  range  are  formed  of  granite  intrusions  with  the 
usual  accompaniment  of  gneiss,  mica  slates  and  various 
schists.  There  is  also  an  appearance  of  what  seems  to 
be  millstone-grit  in  this  vicinity.  Here  occur,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Chantaburi,  basaltic  outcrops  contain- 
ing much  crystalline  corundum  and  also  augite,  with 
gem-bearing  gravels,  again,  as  in  the  far  north, 
contiguous  to  the  basalt. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  the  chief 
geological  characteristics  of  Siam  are  immense  beds 
of  limestone  rocks  resting  on  sandstone,  very  much 
foliated  and  broken  by  frequent  intrusions  of  granite 
and  other  eruptic  rocks,  more  especially  in  the  south. 
Owing  to  the  absence  of  any  systematic  study  of  the 
palaeontology  of  the  country  and  the  consequent 
rudimentary  nature  of  our  knowledge  of  the  subject, 
it  is  difficult  to  determine  the  age  of  the  limestones 
and  sandstones,  but  it  seems  probable  that  they  are 
principally  Old  Red  Sandstone,  Devonian  and  Car- 
boniferous formations  of  the  Palaeozoic  period.  The 
Cambridge  Expedition  at  the  end  of  last  century  was 
successful  in  identifying  by  means  of  fossils  some  of 
the  beds  on  the  west  coast  of  Southern  Siam  as  belong- 
ing definitely  to  the  highest  carboniferous  limestone 
series. 

Here  it  may  be  remarked  that  a French  geologist, 
Dr  Massie,  did  many  years’  good  work  in  the  Mehkong 
valley,  and  that,  but  for  the  deplorable  death  of  this 
enthusiast  in  the  midst  of  his  labours,  very  much  more 
would  undoubtedly  be  known  concerning  the  geology 
of  this  region  than  is  now  the  case. 

There  are  abundant  signs  of  a general  upheaval  of 


90 


SIAM 


the  whole  country,  which  process  is  probably  continuing 
at  the  present  time.  Thus,  not  far  from  the  shore  at 
the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  a marine  deposit 
containing  numerous  recent  shells  lies  upon  the  surface 
of  the  land  some  two  or  three  feet  above  the  sea  level 
and  has  apparently  no  alluvium  upon  it,  while  further 
inland  a well-marked  beach,  eight  feet  above  sea-level, 
crosses  the  Central  Plain  and  indicates  Avhat  was 
probably  once,  and  apparently  not  long  ago,  a river 
bar.  Again  on  the  island  of  Kaw  Mun  there  are 
clear  traces  of  sea  action  on  the  rocks  which  are  now 
considerably  abo's^e  sea  level,  vdiile  in  Southern  Siam 
strata  of  vegetable  matter  are  in  many  places  found 
below  marine  deposit,  and  old  beaches  occur  frequently, 
sometimes  at  a considerable  distance  inland. 

Gold. — Fine  grains  of  gold  are  present  in  the  sands  of 
almost  all  the  streams  of  vSiam,  and  the  metal  is  washed 
in  many  localities  with  more  or  less  system  by  the  country 
people.  The  results  of  these  washings  are,  however, 
seldom  other  than  meagre,  and  usually  suffice  for 
no  more  than  a little  easily  earned  pocket-money  for 
the  washer,  or  for  the  manufacture  of  a few  small 
ornaments  for  the  adornment  of  the  wives  of  hill 
chieftains.  The  washing  is  done  at  the  end  of  the 
rainy  season  and  after  the  rice-harvest  has  been  got 
in.  The  implement  used  is  a shallow  wooden  pan 
some  twenty  inches  in  diameter  and  about  six  inches 
deep  in  the  middle.  The  operator  stands  in  the  water 
and  lills  his  pan  with  dirt  through  a coarse  basket- 
sieve.  The  pan  is  then  gently  rotated,  the  rim  being 
dipped  so  as  to  expel  and  take  up  water,  by  which 
means  the  lighter  constituents  of  the  dirt  are  got  rid 
of.  The  remaining  material  is  then  carefully  set  aside 
after  having  been  examined  and  any  visible  gold 
removed.  Later  on  the  results  of  the  washing  are 
treated  with  mercury  by  which  means  the  gold  is> 


MINERALS 


91 


extracted.  Tlie  average  winnings  per  day  are  about 
six  pennyworth  of  gold  for-  each  pan.  Large  gold- 
washing parties  are  frequently  organised  which, 
partaking  of  the  nature  of  a picnic,  are  made  the 
occasions  of  mnch  frolic  and  hadinage,  and  not  a little 
flirtation  as  understood  in  the  wilds  of  Further  India. 
Here  and  there,  however,  gold  washing  is  a more 
serious  occupation.  Many  of  the  river  beds  and 
alluvial  flats  of  Sontherii  Siam  contain  gold  in 
fairly  considerable  quantities,  and  as  at  Bangtaphan 
and  Tomoh  have  been  systematically  worked  for  a 
very  long  period.  The  remains  of  old  Vvmrkings,  which 
must  have  been  on  a veiy  extensive  scale,  are  to  be 
seen  in  many  localities  of  the  last  named  district  where, 
in  spite  of  ill-nsage,  robbery,  and  sometimes  massacre 
at  the  hands  of  the  native  population,  Chinese  washers 
have  persisted  probably  for  centuries,  and  where  they 
still  continue  to  amass  a small  amount  of  wealth. 
Nuggets,  sometimes  as  much  as  two  ounces  in  weight, 
are  occasionally  found  in  these  parts.  The  gravels  of 
the  valley  of  the  Nam  Ngau,  a trilmtary  of  the  Mehkong 
in  Northern  Siam,  which  are  worked  l)y  the  neigh- 
bouring hill-people,  have  also  yielded  some  fair-sized 
nuggets. 

The  alluvial  gold  so  widely  distributed  is  no  doubt 
derived  from  the  quartz-veins  which  are  found  in  all 
directions  running  through,  the  limestone.  It  seems 
probable,  also,  that  gold  exists  in  many  of  the  crystalline 
schists  which  underlie  the  limestone.  The  people 
of  the  country  are  usually  ignorant  of  the  fact  that 
the  gold  which  they  find  in  the  alluvium  must  have 
come  from  a matrix  and  no  search  for  lodes  has  ever 
been  made.  Consequently  gold  in  situ  has  scarcely 
ever  been  found  and  never  in  such  quantities  as  to 
pay  for  working. 

Silver. — Occurs  with  galena  in  many  parts  of  the 


92 


SIAM 


country  and  was  formerly  mined.  At  the  present  day 
it  is  not  worked  anywhere. 

Tin. — The  great  range  of  granite,  sandstone  and 
limestone,  which  forms  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  which 
reappears  in  the  Dutch  islands  of  Lingga,  Sinkep, 
Banca  and  Billiton  further  south,  produces  some  five- 
sixths  of  the  world’s  tin  supply.  Of  this  by  far  the 
greater  quantity  comes  from  the  Malay  States  which 
are  under  British  rule,  but  from  5000  to  6000  tons 
are  annually  mined  in  that  part  of  the  range  which 
passes  through  Siam,  and  it  is  probable  that  future 
development  will  prove  this  northern  section  to  be 
as  rich  in  the  metal  as  any  other  part.  As  eveiy  tin 
miner  knows,  wherever  granite  occurs,  there  tinstone 
(cassiterite  or  oxide  of  tin),  may  be  found,  more  especi- 
ally where  the  granite  is  in  contact  with  schists  or 
slates  or  sandstone.  Such  is  the  formation  in  Cornwall 
and  throughout  the  Malay  Peninsula.  The  granite, 
where  it  has  intruded  into,  or  through,  sandstone  is 
found  to  be  stanniferous,  containing  oxide  of  tin  in 
small  black  or  brown  crystals  as  one  of  its  essential 
ingredients.  In  the  Malay  Peninsula  where  the  granite 
is  in  close  contact  with  sandstone  as  intrusive  blocks 
and  as  veins,  oxide  of  tin  is  peculiarly  plentiful.  The 
granite  being  coarse-grained  and  loose,  disintegrates 
rapidly  and  hence,  amongst  the  alluvium  at  the  foot 
of  the  mountains,  are  found  great  deposits  of  granite 
sand  and  tinstone  crystals.  This  is  washed  in  all  parts 
of  Southern  Siam  but  the  island  of  Puket,  or  Junk  Ceylon, 
just  off  the  west  coast,  contains  the  most  famous  mines. 
Here,  ever  since  the  9th  century  a.d.  or  even  earlier,  tin 
has  been  mined,  at  first  by  colonists  from  the  south- 
eastern shores  of  India,  later  by  Chinese.  The  whole 
island  is  one  vast  tin  mine  and  has  in  course  of  time 
had  almost  the  whole  of  its  surface,  including  that  on 
which  the  various  settlements  are  planted,  turned  over 


MINERALS 


93 


in  the  pursuit  of  the  metal.  Traces  of  tin  have  been 
found  all  the  way  up  along  the  great  range  to  the 
northern  confines  of  the  kingdom  and  beyond,  and  in 
the  valley  of  the  Nam  Sak  in  Central  Siam,  but  no 
working  of  the  metal  has  yet  been  undertaken  farther 
north  than  the  neighbourhood  of  Eatburi. 

Gems. — It  has  already  been  said  that  in  the  extreme 
north  of  Siam  and  also  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Chanta- 
buri  near  the  east  coast  of  the  Gulf,  there  occur  gem- 
bearing gravels,  and  that  in  both  cases  basaltic  rocks 
are  found  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood.  The 
gem-bearing  gravels  are  alluvial  and  consist  of  the 
detritus  of  disintegrated  basalt,  a clayey  soil  of  decom- 
posed rock,  through  which  is  dispersed  a great  cpiantity 
of  larger  fragments.  The  gravel  beds  of  the  north 
run  from  five  inches  to  eighteen  inches  thick,  those 
of  Chantaburi  are  as  much  as  three  feet  through. 
Warington  Smyth,  who  examined  both  districts  some 
fifteen  years  ago,  found  corundum  and  sapphires  with 
crystals  of  quartz  and  small  garnets  in  the  northern 
Chieng  Kliong  district,  and  corundum,  rubies  and 
sapphires  with  garnets,  topaz  and  quartz  crystals,  in 
the  Chautaburi  gravels.  Spinelles  were  found  in  both 
districts.  He  was  led  by  the  appearance  of  hercynite 
crystals  and  augite  in  the  basalt,  to  the  conclusion  that 
this  rock  must  be  the  matrix  of  the  gems  though  he  did 
not  actually  find  any  in  it.  The  Chieng  Khong  gravels 
were  first  discovered  by  Shan  prospectors  in  1890. 
They  were  worked  in  a desultory  manner  for  some 
years,  but  the  poverty  of  the  yield,  difficulties  of 
transport  and  the  unhealthiness  of  the  neighbourhood, 
have  caused  them  to  be  practically  given  up.  The 
Chantaburi  gravels,  which  have  been  worked  for  a very 
long  time,  still -continue  to  yield  good  returns  though, 
owing  to  the  very  unequal  presence  in  the  gems  of  the 
colouring  matter,  (cobalt  and  chromium),  only  a small 


^4 


SIAM 


percentage  of  the  sapphires  and  rubies  found  are  of  the 
best  corn-flower  blue  and  j^igeon’s-blood  red  colours. 
The  garnets,  topazes  and  spinelles,  though  inferior 
gems,  are  saleable,  as  is  the  corundum.  All  these 
products  of  the  gravel  are  aluminium  compounds, 
corundum,  sapphires  and  rubies  being  oxides  of 
aluminium,  while  garnets,  topazes,  and  spinelles  are 
oxides  of  alnminium  and  magnesium. 

Coal. — ITie  only  known  occurrence  of  black  coal  in 
Siam  is  in  the  division  of  Nakhon  Sawan  in  the  north  of 
Central  Siam.  Nothing  more  is  known  of  this  de^^osit 
than  the  mere  fact  of  its  existence,  no  steps  having  yet 
been  taken  to  examine  the  product  or  to  ascertain  its 
Amine  as  fuel.  Lignite  has  long  been  known  in  Amrious 
parts  of  Southern  Siam,  notably  at  Trang,  Paklao,  Gerbi 
and  Bandon.  Many . concessions  for  the  Avorking  of 
this  broAvn  coal  have  been  given  during  the  last  twenty 
years  or  so,  but  the  difficulties  of  extracting  it  have 
been  great  and  the  results  of  experiment  have  shoAvn  its 
combustible  cpialities  to  be  of  an  indifferent  nature. 
The  deposit  at  Gerbi  seems  to  be  the  most  promising  ; 
the  seam  there  is  over  forty  feet  thick  and  the  difficulties 
of  AAmrking  are  less  than  elsewhere.  The  lignite  is  noAv 
being  extracted  and,  in  spite  of  its  poor  qualities,  is 
finding  a market.  Whether  or  not  the  Avorking  of  it 
Avill  ultimately  prove  to  be  a paying  concern  is  a matter 
of  considerable  doubt. 

Copper. — The  very  limited  amount  of  mineral  pro- 
specting Avhich  has  been  done  in  Siam,  has,  however, 
been  sufficient  to  reveal  the  presence  of  copper  in 
seAmral  localities.  The  principal  of  these  are  the  Amlley 
of  the  Nam  Wa,  near  Nan,  and  at  Muang  Laklion,  both 
in  Nortliern  Siam,  and  at  Chan  Tuk  in  the  Dong  Phaya 
A^en  Mountain,  east  of  Central  Siam.  At  the  last 
named  place  there  is  a lode  lying  north  and  south, 
richly  mineralised,  Vvdiich  has  been  Avorked  by  the 


MINERAI.S 


95 


country  people  for  a very  long  time.  It  contains 
copper,  both  native  and  as  carbonate  of  copper.  Muang 
Ivut  in  Northern  Siam  is  said  to  be  the  site  of  an  ancient 
copper  mine  of  great  value  which,  however,  was  destroyed 
by  lightning  and  has  never  since  been  re-opened. 

Lead. — Large  veins  of  Galena  (lead  sulphide)  occur  in 
several  localities  in  Southern  Siam  near  the  west  coast 
of  the  Gulf.  At  Yala  in  Patani  they  have  been  p»ro- 
spected  and  are  found  to  be  highly  argentiferous  and  to 
carry  gold  in  varying  qualities.  They  were  worked  in 
the  past  but  were  deserted  long  ago  ovv^ing  to  fall  in  the 
price  of  the  metal.  Large  heaps  of  Galena,  known  to 
the  natives  as  ‘ Black  tin,’  may  still  be  seen  in  the  jungle 
near  the  mines,  lying  just  as  they  were  left  when  the 
work  was  abandoned. 

Iron. — Iron  occurs  in  Siam  as  pyrites  very  widely 
distributed,  as  red  haematite  at  Chieng  KaAvng  on  the 
Mehkong  and  as  limonite  in  the  Nam  Pi  valley  north 
east  of  Pichai  and  at  Lakhon  in  Northern  Siam  and 
elsewhere.  The  cubic  crystals  of  pyrites  have  frequently 
been  mistaken  by  natives  for  gold  and  haA^e  led  to  many 
a wild-goose  chase  on  the  part  of  concession  hunters. 
The  red  hematite  deposits  of  Chieng  Kawng  are  of  great 
extent  but  do  not  seem  to  have  been  worked.  The 
limonite  of  the  Nam  Pi  and  of  Lakhon,  Avhich  appears  as 
a surface  ore  Avith  quartz  underlying  it,  has  been  much 
AA'orked  in  the  past  and,  in  spite  of  the  large  recent 
introduction  of  foreign  iron  into  Siam,  is  still  mined 
intermittently  for  the  manufacture  of  knives,  axes, 
plough-shares  and  other  locally  used  inq^lements. 
Popular  superstition  has  iiiA^ested  iron  ore  AAuth  main’ 
dangerous  supernatural  qualities.  Before  either  mining 
or  smelting  operations  can  be  begun,  the  spirits  which 
guard  the  ore  have  to  be  propitiated  AAnth  liberal 
sacrifice  and  AA’oe  betide  any  person  Avho  shall  keep  the 
ore  inside  his  house  ! Even  the  trees  and  other  vegeta- 
tion in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  places  where  it  is 


96 


SIAM 


stored  are  often  blasted  and  destroyed  by  the  force  of 
its  baleful  magic. 

Zinc  and  Antimony  occur  in  small  quantities  but  have 
not  yet  been  properly  investigated.* 

Pp]TROLEUM. — The  only  undoubted  occurrence  of 
petroleum  is  in  the  Muang  Fang  district  of  Northern 
Siam.  Samples  from  the  wells,  which  exist  here  over 
an  area  of  some  twenty  square  miles,  have  been  analysed 
more  than  once  and  have  been  pronounced  to  be  oil  of 
a j^eculiarly  rich  quality.  Hitherto,  however,  a system- 
atic opening  up  of  the  wells  has  been  rendered  quite 
impossible  by  the  immense  difficulties  of  transport 
which  must  first  be  overcome,  but  with  the  extension 
of  the  railway  to  the  north  there  may  possibly  be  a 
future  for  the  petroleum  of  Muang  Fang.  A small 
amount  of  oil  is  now  produced  by  the  people  inhabiting 
the  neighbourhood,  who  collect  it  from  the  surface  of 
water  contained  in  pits  dug  in  the  oil-bearing  locality. 
It  is  a dark  brown  and  viscous  fluid  not  unlike  the  oil 
from  Yenangyaung  in  Burma,  situated  some  250  miles 
almost  due  west  of  Muang  Fang.  Reports  of  oil  have  oc- 
casionally been  received  from  Southern  Siam,  and  samples 
from  this  quarter  are  at  present  undergoing  analysis. 

Salt.— To  the  north  of  Muang  Nan  in  Northern  Siam, 
near  the  Nam  Ngop  river  are  situated  the  only  known 
salt  deposits  of  Siam.  The  salt  is  found  from  twenty 
to  forty  feet  below  the  surface  and  is  extracted  by 
means  of  brine  wells.  The  brine,  on  evaporation,  yields 
a large  quantity  of  fairly  pure  salt.  In  Eastern  Siam, 
in  the  central  basin,  there  are  extensive  salt  marshes 
whence  a considerable  quantity  of  salt  is  obtained  by 
evaporation.  It  is,  however,  along  the  northern  and 
western  shores  of  the  Gulf  that  the  main  supply  of 
Siamese  salt  is  obtained.  Here  the  low-lying  level  land 
* Deposits  of  Wolfram  in  Nakhon  Sri  Thammarat  and  on  the 
island  <)f  Kaw  Samni,  the  value  of  which  has  only  recently  been 
discovered,  are  now  being  worked  and  the  output  of  this 
mineral  will  probably  increase  a good  deal  in  the  near  future. 


FAUNA 


97 


near  tlie  shore  is  divided  up  into  dammed  fields  into 
which  the  sea  water  is  admitted  at  high  tide.  When 
partially  evaporated  this  water,  rich  in  salt,  is  run  off 
into  smaller  fields  and  there  allowed  to  evaporate  to 
dryness.  The  process  is  repeated  many  times  before 
the  thick  crust  which  is  thus  accumulated  is  remoA^ed. 
The  state  of  Patani  in  Southern  Siam  annually  exports 
a large  quantity  of  evaporated  sea  salt,  A^diile  the  greater 
part  of  the  salt  consumed  in  Bangkok  comes  from 
the  salt  fields  near  the  mouth  of  the  Menain  Chao 
Phaya. 

Saltpetre.— In  the  limestone  mountains  of  Siam  there 
are  many  caves  in  which,  from  time  immemorial,  legions  of 
hats  have  lived.  The  consequence  is  the  accumulation  on 
the  caA^e  floors  of  beds  of  guano  which  in  many  localities, 
as  at  Trang  and  all  through  the  hilly  region  which 
forms  the  east  boundary  of  Central  Siam,  attains  a 
thickness  of  several  feet.  By  the  simple  process  of 
boiling  this  guano  Avith  wood-ashes,  a remarkably  pure 
saltpetre  is  obtained,  AAdiich,  having  been  used  locally 
from  the  earliest  times,  is  noAv  becoming  an  important 
article  of  export. 


PART  IP— THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 

Speculation  as  to  the  ‘aboriginal,’  that  is,  the  very  first 
inhabitants  of  a country  old  in  geological  time,  is  apt  to 
prove  but  an  unprofitable  occupation  for  the  reason  that, 
hoAA-ever  far  back  enquiry  may  be  carried,  the  investi- 
gator can  arri\"e  at  no  point  Avhere  clear  proof  may  be 
said  to  exist  for  the  assumption  that  there  were  really 
no  human  inhabitants  of  such  country  at  some  still 
more  remote  period.  The  most  superficial  study  of 
the  ethnological  literature  of  almost  any  country  will 
G 


98 


SIAM 


show  how  the  calculations  and  deductions  of  scientists 
and  their  resultant  pronouncements  concerning  ‘abo- 
riginal ’ populations,  have  constantly  proved  mistaken 
in  the  light  of  subsequent  research. 

But  apart  from  the  fruitless  quest  of  the  ‘ aboriginal,’ 
the  study  of  ethnology,  the  origin,  evolution,  rise,  decline, 
absorption  and  disappearance  of  races,  the  construction 
and  disruption  of  nations,  all  the  movements  of  humanity, 
though  leading  always  back  into  mists  of  the  past  which 
there  is  no  dispelling,  is  a.  pursuit  than  which  there  are 
few  more  fascinating.  Its  text-books  are  the  physical 
appearance,  languages,  traditions,  written  character 
and  history  of  the  races  of  mankind,  whether  young 
and  healthy,  or  old  and  decrepit,  and  nowhere  in  the 
world  is  a better  library  of  these  to  be  found  than 
amongst  the  mountain  ranges,  the  secluded  valleys 
and  the  wide  plains  of  Further  India. 

In  Siam  the  earliest  evidence  of  the  existence  of  man 
is  furnished  by  the  axe-head  celts  which  have  occa- 
sionally been  found  in  Southern  Siam  and  on  the 
Korat  Plateau.  Some  of  these  differ  from  the  Neolithic 
celts  found  in  Europe  and  America  in  that,  though 
finely  polished,  they  are  ground  to  a chisel-like  edge 
on  one  side  only  and  have  prominent  square-cut 
shoulders.  Others  are  of  the  usual  smooth  shape, 
ground  on  both  sides,  similar  to  those  found  in  Assam, 
Burma,  Yunnan,  and  Kambodia.  Their  general  work- 
manship would  seem  to  indicate  that  they  belong  to 
the  later  Neolithic  Period. 

It  is  of  course  impossible  to  do  more  than  imagine 
the  appearance  and  condition  of  the  makers  and  users 
of  these  stone  implements,  a race  of  primitive  men 
who  must  have  lived  in  Siam  long  ages  before  the 
advent  of  the  most  ancient  people  of  whom  any  definite 
knowledge  exists.  It  may  be  supposed  that  they 
inhabited  a hilly  shore  surrounding  a great  gulf  which 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


99 


covered  the  whole  central  plain  of  Siam,  for  no  celts 
have  ever  been  fonnd  on  the  plain,  and  moreover 
there  is  evidence  in  the  traditions  of  comparatively 
modern  races,  borne  ont  by  the  movements  of  the 
land  at  present  visible,  that  the  central  plain  has 
appeared  above  the  level  of  the  sea  almost  within 
historic  times.  Nothing  more  can  ever  be  known  of 
these  early  men  than  that  they  existed  and  made  these 
implements,  and  there  appears  no  reason  to  con- 
clude that  they  were  ‘ aboriginals,’  since  geology  alloAvs 
the  existence  of  man  many  ages  before  the  later 
Neolithic  Period. 

Amongst  the  mountains  of  Southern  Siam  there  exist 
at  the  present  day  certain  small,  black,  curly-haired 
men,  differing  greatly  from  all  the  other  tribes  and 
races  of  the  country.  The  little  creatures  are,  however, 
evidently  related  to  the  natives  of  the  Andaman  Islands 
south  of  Burma  and  not  very  far  west  of  their  own 
home,  and  also  to  certain  hill  tribes  of  the  Philippine 
Islands.  They  are  clearly  of  the  Negrito  race  which 
Avriters  are  content  to  call  the  aboriginals  of  India. 
These  tribes,  Avhose  habitat  in  Southern  Siam  extends 
far  down  the  Malay  Peninsula,  are  probably  the  sorry 
remnant  of  a once  numerous  population,  successors  to, 
and  possibly  descendants  of,  the  Neolithic  men  of  Siam. 
They  are  knoAvn  as  the  Semang  and  are  usuall}^  con- 
founded with  the  Sakai,  a tribe  of  someAvhat  similar 
habits  but  of  very  different  physicpie,  AA^hich  occupies 
the  same  mountain  range  further  to  the  south  and 
chiefly  beyond  the  borders  of  Siam. 

It  is  noAv  the  A^ery  generally  accepted  theory  that 
during  the  last  feAv  thousand  years  Siam,  and  in  fact 
the  AAdiole  of  Further  India,  has  been  subjected  to 
periodical  flooding  by  successiA'e  AA^aves  of  humanity, 
set  moving  by  natural  or  social  upheaA^als  of  population 
far  to  the  north  in  Central  Asia.  We  may  imagine. 


100 


SIAM 


then,  the  Negrito  population  of  Siam,  or  rather  of  that 
part  of  what  now  constitutes  Siam  which  was  then 
above  the  sea,  leading  their  primitive  existence  through 
countless  generations,  their  condition  scarce!}'  advanced 
beyond  that  of  their  celt-wielding  forerunners,  until 
there  came  down  upon  them  one  of  these  great  waves  of 
population  which  broke  them  up,  thrust  them  aside  into 
the  remoter  hills,  all  but  exterminated  them  and  finally 
settled  itself  down  in  their  place.  This  irresistible  tide 
of  humanity  was  the  advance  down  all  the  rivers  of 
Further  India  of  the  tribes  which  constituted  what  is 
conveniently  called  the  Mon-Annam  famil}^,  the  savage 
ancestors  of  the  Mon  or  Talaing,  the  Khmer  or  Kam- 
bodian,  and  the  Annamese  civilised  races  of  yesterday 
and  to-day,  and  of  a host  of  lesser  tribes  which  still 
persist  in  quasi-barbarism. 

Of  this  intrusion,  which  must  have  begun  thousands 
of  years  ago  and  which  doubtless  took  many  centuries 
to  complete,  the  modern  representatives  of  the  intruders 
have  absolutely  no  tradition,  and  it  is  only  through 
researches  based  upon  the  discoveries  and  suggestions 
of  Gamier,  Forbes,  Max  Muller,  Grierson  and  others, 
that  the  secret  of  the  origin  of  the  great  Mon-Annam 
family  has  recently  been  explained  upon  scientific 
deductions  of  a soundness  which  it  is  difficult  to  gain- 
say. These  studies  reveal  the  fact  that  many  tribes 
found  scattered  among  the  mountains  which  skirt  the 
Irrawaddy  and  the  Mehkong  valleys  mutually  differing 
in  many  characteristics,  and  whose  traditions  point 
to  their  having  occupied  their  present  seats  since  very 
I'emote  times,  are  of  the  Mon-Annam  stock.  They  are 
found  in  Central  Assam,  if  not  still  farther  north  and 
west,  in  the  Northern  Shan  States  of  Burma,  in  the 
districts  of  the  Llehkong  where  England,  France,  China 
and  Siam  are  now  close  neighbours,  and  they  swarm 
among  the  mountains  in  the  north-Avest,  north  and  east 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAIM 


101 


of  Siam.  Tlieir  languages  not  only  indicate  tlieir 
relationship  with  each  other  and  with  the  Mons  and 
Khmers  of  to-day,  hut  also  hear  evidence,  sufficient 
to  satisfy  most  authorities,  of  being  old  forms  from 
which  the  languages  of  the  more  civilised  hranches  of 
the  family  were  derived.  There  are  those  who  aver, 
apparently  with  good  reason,  that  the  languages  of 
the  Mon-Annam  family  have  points  of  similarity  with 
those  of  the  pre-Dravidian  Kolarian  races  of  India,  and 
that  this  fact  points  to  a common  origin  of  the  Kolarian 
races  and  the  Mon-Annam,  hut  this  is  disputed  hy  others 
who  contend  rather  that  in  remote  times  the  Mon- 
Annam  ancestors,  inhahiting  the  wilds  of  far-away 
Tibet,  may  have  come  into  contact  with  the  progenitors 
of  the  Kols  and  that  thus  the  two  races,  though  of 
different  origin,  have  acquired  some  slight  similarity 
of  speech. 

The  theory  of  a descent  of  the  Mon-Annam  family  from 
the  north  is  not  unopposed,  for  some  students  of  the  matter 
maintain  that  the  arguments  used  to  prove  that  descent  may 
he  apiplied  with  equal  success  to  a theory  of  an  ascent 
from  the  south,  and  that  the  originals  of  the  Mon-Annam 
family  may,  after  all,  have  arrived  in  Further  India 
by  sea  from  India  or  elsewhere  and  hai^e  spread 
inwards  and  northwards  from  the  coasts  round  about 
the  mouths  of  the  great  rivers.  Colour  is  lent  to  this 
argument  hy  the  fact  that  in  comparatively  recent  times, 
that  is  not  more  than  about  2000  years  ago,  the 
countries  inhabited  by  the  i\I6n  and  the  Khmer  were 
colonised  by  members  of  the  Dravidian  races  of 
Telingana  in  India,  who  reached  these  countries  by 
sea.  These  adventurers  howev^er  were  already  highl^y 
civilised  people,  well  used  to  seafaring  and  they  found 
the  i\I6n-Annam  tribes,  amongst  whom  they  came  and 
settled,  in  a state  of  the  rudest  barbarism  and  most 
complete  ignorance.  There  is  also  evidence  furnished 


102 


SIAM 


by  the  annals  of  the  early  Lao  State  of  Wieng  Chan^ 
far  np  the  Mehkong  River,  that  at  about  this  same  period 
the  Lao  were  already  fighting  against  the  wild  and 
savage  inhabitants  of  the  hills  round  about  them,  which 
inhabitants,  it  is  now  known,  were  hill-tribes  of  the 
M6n-Annani  family.  Hence  if  this  family  came  to 
Further  India  by  sea,  it  must  have  come  very  much 
earlier  than  2000  years  ago,  for  its  members  had  already 
spread  far  to  the  north  by  that  time.  It  is  difficult  to 
imagine  either  how  or  why  a people  in  such  an  elemental 
state  could  have  left  their  home  and  put  out  to  sea  with' 
out  the  least  knowledge  as  to  whither  they  were  bound, 
or  how,  having  done  so,  their  offshoots  should  have 
wandered  so  far  north  as  the  upper  Mehkong  and  the 
N.  Shan  States,  whereas,  more  especially  with  the  ana- 
logy of  subseciueiit  Tibeto-Burman  and  Lao  intrusions, 
there  is  nothing  at  all  repugnant  to  the  theory  of  a 
descent  by  land  from  the  north.  Against  the  idea  that 
these  races  ma}^  have  arrived  on  the  mainland  from 
India  is  also  the  indisputable  fact  of  their  Mongolian 
origin.  In  fact,  though  exhaustive  linguistic  research 
leaves  certain  learned  professors  undecided  as  to 
whether  the  Mon-Annam  family  came  into  Further 
India  by  land  from  the  north  or  by  sea  from  the  south 
or  south-west,  it  is  now  generally  thought  that  the 
probabilities  of  the  latter  source  of  origin  are  small 
and  the  theoiy  of  immigration  from  the  north  is  generally 
accepted.  This  of  course,  has  nothing  to  do  with  subse- 
cpieiit  movements  of  individuals  and  groups  of  the  race 
to  and  fro  in  Southern  Siam,  the  Malay  Peninsula  and 
the  Archipelago  at  much  later  periods. 

At  first,  probably  little  more  advanced  than  the 
Negrito  population  which  they  found  there,  the  Mon- 
Annam  wanderers,  on  arrival  in  Further  India,  may 
have  led  the  same  sort  of  very  primitive  existence  as 
their  predecessors,  settling  among  them  and  finally 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


103 


ousting  them  from  the  country  more  by  the  pressure  of 
increasing  numbers  as  more  tribesmen  arrived,  than  by 
the  exercise  of  any  superior  arts  or  knowledge.  In 
time  they  came  to  occupy  the  whole  littoral  of  Further 
India  and,  as  their  numbers  still  continued  to  increase, 
began  to  overflow  from  the  mainland  into  the  adjacent 
islands,  working  away  to  the  south  and  east  through 
the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  there  is  reason  to  suppose 
that  the  Hainans  (or  Hailams),  the  Javanese,  the  Bugis, 
the  Macassars,  the  Tagalas  of  the  Philippines,  the 
Da^^aks  of  Borneo  and  a host  of  other  more  or  less 
related  tribes,  are  all  descended  from  the  M6n-Annam 
stock,  though  now  largel}^  diluted  with  Chinese,  Indian 
and  Xegrito  blood.  Communication  between  the  islands 
at  the  present  day  is  far  from  difficult  and  if,  as  Wallace 
avers,  the  whole  x\rchipelago  is  in  a state  of  subsidence, 
it  is  possible  that  at  the  time  of  the  incursions  of  the 
M6n-Annam  there  existed  diy  land,  by  which  the 
wanderers  were  able  to  fare  perhaps  a part  of  the  way 
through  what  is  now  the  Malay  Archipelago  and 
possibly  even  further  south  and  east. 

The  branches  of  this  ancient  family  now  to  be  found 
in  Siam  are  the  Khmer  (or  Kambodians),  Mon  (or 
Talaings),  ATian  (or  Annamese),  Lawa,  Chong,  and 
the  various  tribes  grouped  by  the  Siamese  under  the 
generic  term  Kache.  The  i\Ion  and  Khmer  are  the 
descendants  of  those  tribes  which,  imbued  with  civi- 
lising influences  brought  amongst  them  by  colonists 
from  the  south  of  India,  early  emerged  from  the  state 
of  savagery  and,  achieving  considerable  enlightenment, 
sx>read  themselves  in  a series  of  more  or  less  independent 
communities  over  the  plains  and  deltas  of  Further 
India  as  these  gradually  rose  out  of  the  sea.  The 
modern  Malays  of  Siam,  a composite  race  of  com- 
paratively recent  evolution,  are  probably  the  result  of 
a fusion  of  the  ancient  M6n-Annam  tribes  who  occupied 


104 


SIAM 


the  north  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  with  distant  cousins 
from  the  islands  to  the  south  who,  like  the  Mon  and 
Khmer,  had  come  under  the  modifying  and  civilising 
influences  of  India,  and  whom  force  of  circumstances 
drove  back  from  the  south  upon  the  footprints  of  their 
early  wandering  ancestors.  The  Lawa  and  Kache,  with 
their  Kamuk,  Kamet,  Kabit  and  Kahok  clans,  are 
isolated  remnants  of  the  same  great  family  which,  left 
behind  by  the  southward  tribal  movements  of  past  ages, 
have  remained  in  the  hills,  and,  in  the  absence  of  later 
civilising  influences,  have  retained  to  the  present  day 
much  of  their  original  primitive  state. 

Another  wave  of  population  which  rolled  down  from 
the  north  over  Further  India  was  that  composed  of  the 
Tibeto-Burman  family.  This  intrusion,  which  may  have 
occurred  any  time  between  2000  and  3000  years  ago, 
was  much  more  recent  than  that  of  the  M6n-Annam 
family  and  many  traditions  which  seem  to  have 
originated  in  the  movement  are  still  extant  among  the 
present-day  representatives  of  the  family.  Though  the 
original  seat  of  the  Tibeto-Burman  tribes  has  been 
disputed,  there  seems  to  be  now  a general  consensus  of 
opinion  that  they  came  from  much  the  same  quarter  that 
formerly  gave  forth  the  Mon-Annam  family,  but  the  Tibeto- 
Burmans  in  their  descent  followed  the  Irrawaddy  river 
chiefly  and  the  Mehkong  river  very  little,  and  though 
they  approached  the  borders  of  the  country  which  is 
now  Siam,  they  never  really  crossed  them  until  com- 
paratively recently,  when  the  Meow  (or  Meo),  the 
Muh-so  (or  Lahu),  and  Kui,  the  Kaw  (or  Aka),  the 
Lishaw  and  the  Yao,  all  tribes  of  probable  Tibeto- 
Burman  origin,  made  their  appearance  in  the  north  and 
east  of  the  country.  These  tribes  formerly  dwelt  among 
the  hills  of  Muang  Sin,  Sibsong  Panna,  SiI)song  Chutai 
and  the  neighbourhood,  and  further  north.  Disturb- 
ances in  those  parts  have  caused  them  to  migrate  in 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


105 


varioHs  directions,  and  considerable  numbers  liave  now 
made  tlieir  borne  in  Siam,  where  they  are  being 
constantly  joined  by  more  emigrants  from  the  north. 

While  the  Mon  and  Khmer  were  spreading  them- 
selves over  the  sonthern  shores  of  Further  India  and 
before  they  had  begun,  under  the  influence  of  foreign 
colonists,  to  emerge  from  the  state  of  savagery,  the 
tribes  which  they  had  left  behind  them  at  different 
points  during  their  southward  trend,  were  already  being 
driven  back  into  the  mountains  and  brought  into  a 
state  of  partial  subjugation  by  clans  of  a third  great 
family  of  wanderers  from  the  north.  These  were  the 
Lao  who,  descending  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Yang-Tse  valley,  where  the  Lao-Tai  family  had  its 
most  ancient  seat,  had,  so  long  as  2500  years  ago, 
established  a powerful  and  to  some  extent  civilised 
State  on  the  banks  of  theMehkong  river  at  Wieng  Chan. 

These  people  whose  first  southward  movements 
from  western  China  were  probably  contemporaneous 
with  those  of  the  Tibeto-Burmans  from  Tibet,  were 
among  tlie  earliest  off-shoots  of  the  great  family  whose 
modern  representatives  now  ]3eople  Assam,  the  Shan 
States  of  Burma,  Siam  and  much  of  the  great  tract  of 
almost  unknown  country  which  lies  at  the  back  of 
Frencii  Indo-Cliina  and  lieyond  the  northeiTi  borders 
of  Siam.  The  Lao-fl'ai  inhaliitants  of  the  Yang  Tse 
valle,y  must  have  been  very  numerous,  for  not  only  did 
the}’  thus  early  establish  kingdoms  far  remote  from  home 
but  they  also  became  a power  in  their  own  land  and 
for  some  time  bid  strongly  for  the  mastery  of  all  China. 
For  many  centuries  they  conducted  successful  wars 
against  all  their  neighbours,  but  a want  of  internal 
cohesion,  vdiich  a])pears  to  have  been  their  chief  weak- 
ness, together  with  other  causes,  ultimately  brought 
about  the  disintegration  of  their  kingdom,  when  their 
already  strong  migratory  proj^ensities  sent  them  in 


106 


SIAM 


search  of  new  destinies  in  distant  lands.  They  were 
repeatedly  attacked  by  the  Chinese  and  each  attack 
produced  a fresh  exodus  until,  during  the  thirteenth 
century  a.d.  the  Emperor  Kublai  Khan  dealt  them  a 
final  blow,  crushing  the  old  Lao-Tai  power  and  scatter- 
ing its  component  parts  in  all  directions.  Fugitive 
hordes  entered  Assam,  where  former  emigrants  had 
already  effected  a lodgment,  and  became  the  dominant 
power  in  that  country.  Others  invaded  Burma,  where 
for  two  centures  a Tai  or  Shan  dynasty  occupied  the 
throne  and  held  the  Burmese  in  subjection,  while  down 
the  Salwin  and  Mehkong  valleys  and  into  Siam  came 
band  after  band  of  exiled  tribesmen  who  mingled  with 
their  cousins  already  established  there,  accelerated  the 
fusion  between  Lao  and  Khmer  which  had  for  long 
been  going  on,  and  in  'time  caused  the  formation  of  the 
race  which  now  occupies  the  greater  part  of  Siam. 

From  the  date  of  the  overthrow  of  the  last  stronghold 
of  Khmer  power  and  the  founding  of  the  city  of  Ayuthia, 
the  Thai  or  ‘ Freeman,’  evolved  from  the  union  of  Lao 
and  Khmer,  have  been,  except  during  brief  intervals  of 
alien  conquest,  the  ruling  race  in  Siam. 

The  divisions  of  the  Lao-Tai  family  now  to  be  found 
within  the  borders  of  Siam  are  the  Thai,  or  Siamese 
proper,  the  Lao,  inhabiting  the  former  seats  of  the 
tribes  of  their  own  stock  who  afterwards  developed 
into  the  Thai,  the  Shans,  a later  intrusion  of  distant 
cousins,  the  descendants  of  the  Lao-Tai  tribes  who 
settled  in  the  eastern  districts  of  the  Burmese  Empire 
in  the  twelfth  century  and  earlier,  the  Sam-Sam  of 
Southern  Siam,  a cross  between  Thai  and  Malay,  and  the 
Lu,  a small  tribe  of  recent  arrival  of  whom  little  is  known 
except  that  their  language  reveals  their  Lao-Tai  origin. 

Besides  the  races  already  enumerated  there  are  in 
Siam  certain  tribes  which  it  is  difficult  to  affiliate  with 
any  of  the  three  great  families  occupying  Further  India, 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


107 


Of  these  the  most  important  are  the  Karien  (or  Karen) 
clans  which  have  their  seats  in  the  hill-ranges  between 
Burma  and  Siam.  They  live  chiefly  on  the  Burma  side 
of  the  frontier  but  considerable  nuanbers  are  found  on 
the  eastern  slopes  of  the  dividing  range  through  all 
the  western  border-districts  of  Central  Siam  and  ex- 
tending some  way  down  into  the  Siamese  Provinces  of 
the  Malay  Peninsula.  Of  legendary  history  the  Karien 
have  very  little  and  what  there  is  gives  no  indication 
as  to  whence  they  may  have  come,  though  it  is  to  be 
noted  that  they  have  certain  vague  traditions  of  ancient 
wanderings  from  some  unknown  land.  These  traditions 
do  not  take  them  anywhere  beyond  Burma  but  their 
language,  which  has  a certain  affinity  with  Lao  and 
with  Chinese,  seems  to  indicate  a probability  of  their 
having  come  originally  from  South-West  China.  Some 
authorities  class  them  with  the  Lao-Tai  family,  others 
with  the  Tibeto-Burman  and  others  again  place  them 
quite  apart  from  all  their  neighbours.  Captain  Forbes 
has  it  that  they  arrived  in  their  present  habitat  in 
the  sixth  or  seventh  century  a.d.  after  the  Mon  of  Pegu 
and  thereabouts,  and  the  Khmer  inhabitants  of  Siam, 
had  become  civilised  nations,  and  it  is  possible  that 
they  were  originally  regarded  by  the  Chinese  as  related 
to  the  Lao-Tai  family  and  were  driven  out  of  China  in 
consequence  of  this  supposed  kinship. 

Another  tribe  which  has  not  yet  been  satisfactorily 
classified  is  that  of  the  Sakai,  members  of  which  inhabit 
the  mountains  of  Southern  Siam  in  small  numbers,  the 
main  seat  of  the  tribe  being  in  the  British  Malay  States. 
At  one  time  the  Sakai,  Jakiin  and  Semang,  all  Avild 
tribes  of  Southern  Siam  and  the  Malay  States,  Avere 
classed  together  as  Negrito  but  though  in  some  AA^ays 
resembling  each  other  by  reason  of  long  contact,  it  has 
recently  been  demonstrated  that  the  Sakai  are  certainly 
not  of  Negrito  stock  AAdiile  eAudence  has  been  produced 


108 


SIAM 


wliicli  seems  to  point  to  a descent  from  an  old  Dra vidian 
race,  the  progenitors,  perhaps,  of  the  Veddas  of  Southern 
India, 

The  following  table  shows  the  grouping  of  the  present 
inhabitants  of  Siam. 


Negrito 

r 


Mon-Annam 


r 


Tibeto-Biirman  { 


r 


The  Lao-Tai 


Unclassified  tribes 


r 

\ 


Semang 

Khmer 

Mon 

Yuan  (Annamese) 

Lawa 

Ivache 

Chong 

Malays  of  Siam  (fused  with 
Mon-Annam  v.  pp.  103-4) 
Meao,  Meo,  or  Meao-tsu 
Mnh-so  or  Lahu 
Kawi 

Aka  or  Kaw 
Lishaw 

Yao  or  Yao-yin 
Siamese  or  Thai 
Lao 

Ngion  (Shan) 

Lu 

Sam-sam 
Ivarien  or  Karen 
Sakai 


To  these  should  be  added  the  Chinese  immigrants,  a 
very  numerous  community  composed  chiefly  of  Hokkien 
and  Hailam,  the  latter  natives  of  the  island  of  Hainan 
and  though  perhaps  ])artly  of  Mon-Annam  stock,  not 
now  distinguishable  from  the  Chinese  proper. 

Population. — The  population  of  Siam  is  not  accurately 
known,  as  no  census  of  the  whole  country  has  yet  been 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


109 


taken.  In  1854  a.d.  Pallegoix,  whose  calculations  were 
based  upon  an  intimate  knowledge  of  all  parts  of  the 
country,  estimated  the  total  of  all  races  as  six  millions, 
and  other  writers  have  variously  placed  it  at  from  five 
to  twelve  hnillions.  A recent  census  of  Bangkok,  an 
enumeration  of  the  more  centi'al  parts  of  the  country 
and  a careful  estimate  of  the  more  outlying,  are  the 
sources  from  which  the  most  reliable  present  figures 
are  obtained  and  these  give  the  population  at  just  over 
six  millions.  The  census  of  Bangkok  shoAvs  a population 
of  628,675  of  whom  379,118  are  males  and  249,557  are 
females  ; a curious  result  for  the  capital  of  a country 
where  polygamy  prevails,  but  which  is  accounted  for  by 
the  facts  that  in  the  foreign  element,  which  is  very  large, 
the  males  greatly  predominate  and  that  the  schools  and 
the  military  forces  of  the  country  tend  towards  concen- 
tration there  ; as  well  as  by  the  fact  that  the  number  of 
temples,  each  of  Avhich  has  its  large  complement  of 
monks  and  novices,  is  very  great.  It  is  known  that  many 
causes,  such  as  defective  sanitation  and  the  absence  of 
the  most  rudimentary  knowledge  of  hygiene,  have 
contributed  to  check  the  increase  of  population  to  such 
an  extent  that  the  numbers  have  scarcely  increased 
during  the  past  fift.y  years,  and  hence  it  is  probable, 
judging  by  the  recent  enumeration,  that  Pallegoix  came 
nearer  to  the  mark  than  other  observers  in  the  past. 
The  Thai,  or  Siamese  proper,  number  about  2,400,000, 
the  Lao  very  nearly  the  same,  and  these  are  the  main 
divisions  of  the  population,  the  Chinese  coming  next 
with  about  400,000,  then  the  Malays  Avith  350,000,  the 
Khmer  Avith  80,000,  the  Mon  Avith  60,000,  and  the  Karien 
Avith  30,000.  Others,  of  AAKom  there  are  some  300,000, 
are  chiefly  Avild  hill-tribes.  The  foreign  element  in  the 
capital,  AAdiich  includes  Europeans,  Americans,  Japanese, 
Burmese,  JaA^anese  and  natiA-es  of  India,  amounts  to 
about  9,000.  Of  Europeans  and  Americnus  there  are 


110 


SIAM 


about  1800,  chiefly  members  of  business  firms,  govern- 
ment officials  and  missionaries.  The  number  of  Chinese 
in  Siam  has  been  much  exaggerated.  Pallegoix  esti- 
mated it  at  1,500,000  and  more  recent  observers  have 
gone  further,  some  of  them  not  hesitating  to  state  that 
half  the  population  of  the  country  is  Chinese.  Such 
estimates,  however,  have  usually  been  based  upon  the 
number  of  Chinese  to  be  seen  in  the  streets  of  Bangkok 
where  the  Chinese  element  is  at  its  strongest,  and  it  has 
too  often  been  taken  for  granted  that  because  every 
other  man  encountered  in  the  streets  of  the  capital  wears 
a pigtail,*  therefore  the  Celestial  must  be  equally 
prevalent  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  As  a matter  of 
fact  the  Chinese  number  about  a quarter  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Bangkok  but  this  proportion  diminishes 
rapidly  as  the  distance  from  the  capital  increases  and, 
except  where  the  tin-mining  and  rice-milliiig  industries 
have  caused  the  formation  of  separate  colonies  as  at  Puket 
and  Petriu,  is  an  almost  negligible  quantity  in  most  of 
the  rural  districts.  At  the  same  time  there  is  a strong 
infusion  of  Celestial  blood  in  tlie  Siamese  themselves, 
more  especially  amongst  the  townspeople  and  the  upper 
classes,  for  Chinamen,  v/lio  have  resorted  to  Siam  for  com- 
merce and  as  tradesmen  and  labourers  since  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  century  a.d.,  have  intermarried  freely 
with  the  women  of  the  country,  their  descendants  about  the 
third  generation  or  even  earlier,  becoming  indistinguish- 
able in  outward  appearance  from  the  pure  Siamese.  Many 
noble  families  of  the  present  day  trace  their  descent  to 
some  not  veiy  remote  Chinese  ancestor  who,  arriving  in  the 
country  penniless,  raised  himself  by  years  of  thrift  among 
a thriftless  people,  to  a position  of  wealth  and  power. 

The  Semang. — The  investigations  of  the  Cambridge 
Expedition  which  explored  the  interior  of  Southern 
Siam  and  the  Malay  Peninsula  in  1899  and  the  subse- 

* Or  did  until  queue-cutting  became  the  fashion. 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


111 


quent  work  on  The  Pagan  Paces  of  the  Malay  Peninsula 
by  Messrs  Skeat  and  Blagden,  have  added  enormonsly  to 
our  knowledge  of  the  Semang.  Formerly  he  was  classed 
with  other  tribes  of  his  neighbourhood  who  were 
collectively  known  as  ‘ Sakai,’  a Malay  word  meaning 
simply  slave  or  servant  as  does  the  word  ‘ Ka  ’ aj3plied 
by  the  Siamese  to  all  and  sundry  hill-tribes  in  Northern 
Siam.  Now  it  is  known  that  the  Semang  stands  alone, 
separated  from  the  people  surrounding  him  by  a vastly 
older  descent,  and  represents  with  his  Negrito  cousins  of 
the  Andamans  and  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  possibly 
also  with  the  Pygmies  of  Central  Africa’  one  of  the  most 
ancient  races  of  mankind  now  in  existence. 

The  Semang  of  Siam  probably  number  about  6000  in 
all,  and  inhabit  the  mountains  at  the  back  of  the  Chaya, 
Singora  and  Patani  districts.  Among  these  ranges  they 
wander  up  and  down,  seldom  remaining  in  one  place 
longer  than  is  necessary  to  reap  the  thin  croj)s  of  rice 
and  millet  which  they  sometimes  plant  in  rough  clear- 
ings on  the  hill  sides.  The  men  average  about 
4 ft.  10  in.  in  height  and  the  women  4 ft.  7 in.  Their 
colour  is  either  chocolate  brown  or  ‘jet  black  ’ ; the  head, 
when  not  shaven,  is  covered  with  short  wool,  the  fore- 
head is  low  and  round,  nose  flat  and  spreading,  cheek- 
bones not  prominent,  eyes  horizontal,  mouth  wide  witli 
lips  usually  not  over  thick  but  occasionally  very  much 
so,  chin  small,  and  jaw  slightly  prognathous.  The  body 
is  usually  well  developed  with  a somewhat  protruding 
posterior — on  the  whole  a decidedly  unjDrepossessing 
race  judged  by  standards  other  than  their  own  ; but 
their  bright  eyes,  vivacious  expression,  quick,  lithe 
movements  and  habitual  cheerfulness  do  much  to  relieve 
their  general  ugliness. 

The  distinctive  costume  of  the  Semang  male  consists 
of  a diminutive  loin-cloth  made  of  a stringy  fungus 
common  in  the  neighbourhood.  That  of  the  Avoman  is 


112 


SIAM 


a girdle  of  leaves  and  a bamboo  liair-comb,  the  latter 
worn  to  avert  sickness  and  other  ill  fortune.  Tattooing 
is  unknown  but  both  men  and  women  occasionally 
ornament  their  faces  with  lines  scratched  thereon  with 
a thorn.  A Semang  house  is  seldom  more  than  a simple 
shelter  formed  of  palm  leaves  stuck  in  the  ground  with 
the  tops  bent  over  and  intertwined.  Now  and  then,  as 
a result  of  contact  with  more  ciAulised  races,  small  huts 
of  plaited  palm  leaves  are  constructed,  but  the  wilder 
Semang  frequently  do  not  aspire  to  a house  of  any  kind, 
contenting  themselves  with  a lair  beneath  an  over- 
hanging rock  or  in  a holloAv  tree-trunk.  Their  weapons 
consist  of  boAv  and  arroAvs,  a blovA^-pipe  adopted  from 
the  neighbouring  Sakai  tribes,  and  spears  of  sharpened 
bamboo  slivers.  ArroAvs  and  bloAv-pipe  darts  are  usually 
tipped  with  a poAverful  vegetable  poison,  prepared  from 
the  juice  of  the  Upas  tree  or  creeper.  Their  arroAA"- 
heads  are  frequently  of  iron,  obtained  from  the  Malays 
or  Siamese  near  Avhom  they  live.  They  are  skilful  and 
courageous  hunters,  and  all  manner  of  game,  from  the 
elephant  to  the  smallest  bird,  falls  to  their  primitive 
Aveapons.  Their  religion  is  of  the  vaguest  and  most 
rudimentary  character,  consisting  of  little  more  than 
the  occasional  ]3lacation  of  a god  called  ‘ Kaye  ’ (the 
controller  of  ‘ Thunder  ’),  and  of  a hazy  idea  of  a paradise 
and  a place  of  eternal  punishment,  neither  of  which 
seems  in  any  way  to  affect  the  shaping  of  their  lives. 
Of  ceremonies  they  have  next  to  none.  A bare  act  of 
barter  between  a bridegroom  and  his  father-in-laAv 
constitutes  a wedding,  while  a burial  is  no  more  than 
a silent  shuffling  of  the  deceased  into  a shallow  graye 
constructed  like  an  underground  leaf  shelter.  Their 
music,  their  dancing  and  singing  are  of  the  most 
primitive  description.  A hollow  bamboo  beaten  Avith 
a palm-leaf  or  knocked  against  a tree  trunk,  a flute 
blown  through  the  nose  instead  of  with  the  lips  and  a 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


113 


bamboo  Jew’s  harp  twanged  with  a monkey’s  bone,  aro 
the  musical  instruments  used,  to  the  accompaniment  of 
which  rude  songs  are  chanted  and  an  elemental  dance 
is  performed,  not  apparently  in  connection  with  aii}^ 
ceremonial  but  merely  as  a distraction.  The  Semang 
usually  cook  their  food,  though  meat  is  sometimes 
jireferred  raw.  The}^  obtain  fire  by  the  friction  of  two 
pieces  of  bamboo  rubbed  together,  but  the  more  civilised 
are  possessed  of  flint  and  steel,  and  nowadays  trade 
matches  are  not  unknown  to  them.  They  use  neither 
alcohol  nor  opium  but  are  confirmed  tobacco  smokers. 
The  Semang  are  absolutely  illiterate,  possessing  no 
written  character  of  any  kind.  Their  language  is 
largely  made  up  of  words  borrowed  from  the  ancient 
Malay  and  contains  also  a few  words  of  ancient  Mon- 
Annam  origin,  the  latter  resulting  probably  from  contact 
with  the  ancient  races  of  Southern  Siam. 

Countless  generations  of  oppression  at  the  hands  of 
their  more  civilised  neighbours  have  created  in  these 
little  people  a condition  of  extreme  shyness  and  timidity 
towards  the  rest  of  mankind.  Neither  Malays  nor 
Siamese  have  ever  realised  that  the  Semang  are  as  much 
human  beings  as  themselves  nor  can  they  see  any  differ- 
ence between  the  value  of  the  life  of  a Semang  and  that 
of  any  lower  animal  of  the  more  useless  kind,  and  conse- 
quently they  are  always  as  ready  to  take  the  one  as  the 
other.  Therefore  the  Semang  seldom  leaves  his  jungle 
fastness  and  when  visited  there  by  strangers,  steals 
away  before  them  like  a wild  beast.  His  ‘ form  ’ may 
be  found  fresh  beneath  a rock,  with  fire  still  smouldering 
and  with  little  bits  of  basket-work  and  fresh-picked 
bones  lying  about,  but  the  owner  will  not  be  met  with 
and,  indeed,  it  is  only  after  long  negotiation  with  a 
known  and  trusted  go-between  that  he  may  at  last  be 
induced  reluctantly  to  show  himself.  It  will  therefore 
be  understood  that  as  a tax-paying  citizen  of  the  State 
H 


114 


SIAM 


the  Semang  is  a complete  failure  and,  though  he  would 
doubtless  enjoy  the  suffrage  if  domiciled  in  England,  in 
Siam  he  is  accepted  as  an  uninteresting  waif  of  humanity 
of  no  value  even  as  a slave — in  fact,  a nonentity.  A 
young  male  specimen  was  captured  and  presented  to 
the  late  King  of  Siam  a few  years  ago.  This  youth  now 
speaks  Siamese  fluently,  occupies  a place  amongst  the 
Court  pages,  and  revels  in  his  fine  clothes  and  gay 
surroundings. 

Malays.- — The  Malay  population  of  Siam  has  been 
I'educed  by  the  recent  cession  of  territory  to  Great 
Britain,  from  over  one  million  to  some  360,000.  Of 
those  who  remain  under  the  White  Elephant  ensign, 
the  greater  part  inhabit  Southern  Siam  but  about 
30,000  are  located  at  Chantaburi,  Ayuthia  and  Bangkok 
and  along  the  East  Coast  of  the  Gulf.  These  latter 
are  the  descendants  of  captives  brought  back  from  time 
to  time  by  the  military  expeditions  to  the  Malay  penin- 
sula, which  were  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  past. 

The  Malay  of  Southern  Siam  is  of  comparatively 
recent  evolution.  It  is  not  more  than  500  years  since 
roving  parties  of  Malays  from  Malacca  first  penetrated 
the  rivers  of  the  northern  part  of  the  Peninsula  and, 
overcoming  the  resistance  of  the  inhabitants,  made 
settlements  there.  Their  superior  warlike  qualities 
enabled  them  to  spread  their  influence  through  the 
surrounding  districts  and,  by  converting  the  indigenous 
male  population  to  Mohammedanism  and  extensively 
inter-marrying  with  the  females,  to  produce  a large 
population  of  passable  Malays  in  a surprisingly  short 
space  of  time,  the  more  so  as  the  indigenous  people, 
descended  like  themselves  from  the  ancient  M6n-Annam 
stock,  strongly  resembled  them  in  many  respects. 
Indeed,  with  the  exception  of  language,  costume  and 
religion,  there  is  little  to  distinguish  the  Malay  of 
Southern  Siam  from  the  Siamese  of  that  locality. 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


115 


Physically  the  two  are  exactly  alike,  both  having 
complexions  of  varying  shades  of  brown,  short  stature 
and  slight  but  well-knit  frames,  brachycephalous 
heads  with  prognathous  jaws,  oblique  brown  eyes, 
straight  black  hair,  prominent  cheek-bones  and  flat 
noses  ; in  fact  all  the  usual  characteristics  of  the  Further 
Indian  Mongoloid  type.  In  this  respect  the  Malay  of 
Southern  Siam  differs  somewhat  from  the  true  Malay,  in 
whom  the  Indian  and  other  foreign  blood  which  has 
contributed  largely  towards  the  evolution  of  his  race, 
has  to  some  extent  modified  the  Mongol  characteristics. 

The  language  of  the  Patani  Malay  consists  of  a 
dialect  of  Malay  interlarded  with  words  borrowed  from 
Siamese  ; a dialect  so  broad  as  to  be  almost  unintelligible 
to  the  iinaccnstomed  ear  of  a true  Malay.  The  Tongkah 
and  Puket  ]\lalays  also  use  a large  number  of  Siamese 
words,  but  their  pronunciation,  being  less  marred  by 
dialectical  clippings  than  is  that  of  their  East  Coast 
cousins,  is  more  comprehensible  to  the  Malays  of  the 
South. 

The  Malays  of  Siam  are  all  Mohammedans  but  the 
spirit  worship  they  practised,  together  possibly  with  a 
veneer  of  Buddhism,  before  their  conversion,  still 
maintains  a strong  hold  upon  them,  more  esjiecially  in 
the  remoter  districts,  where  the  inhabitants  are  frankl}^ 
animistic  wdth  the  merest  varnish  of  Islamism  super- 
imposed. The  people  are  grouped  into  parishes,  each  of 
which  has  a Surao,  or  Praying  House,  and  a staff  of  clergy, 
and  the  Mohammedan  rites  of  circumcision,  marriage 
and  burial  are  universall}^  practised  ; but  beyond  these 
observances  the  lives  of  the  peo])le  are  ordered  entirely 
with  reference  to  the  legions  of  supernatural  beings 
which  they  believe  to  surround  them  and  to  exercise 
an  influence,  benign  or  baleful  as  the  case  may  be,  upon 
even  the  most  trivial  of  their  actions.  There  is  some 
slight  evidence  to  show  that  before  the  people  were 


116 


SIAM 


converted  to  Islam  their  religion  may  have  included  a 
debased  form  of  Brahmanism.  The  conqueror  when 
imposing  Mohammedanism  upon  them,  failed  to  dispel 
the  influence  of  the  Brahman  Gods  who,  though  classed  by 
orthodox  Moslems  with  Afrits  and  Jins,  to  follow  whom 
is  death  and  damnation,  still  stand  at  the  head  of  the 
spirit  world  and  command  the  utmost  respect  of  the- 
XDeople.  In  fact  the  Brahman  Gods  with  their  hosts  of 
attendant  sjDirits  occupy  much  the  same  position 
with  regard  to  tlie  Mohammedanism  of  the  Malays  as- 
they  do  to  the  Buddhism  of  the  Siamese. 

The  Malays  of  Siam  are  agriculturists  and  fishermen. 
They  own  some  of  the  best  rice-producing  land  in  the 
Peninsula,  and  the  seas  which  wash  their  shores  teem 
with  fish  of  many  kinds.  Their  methods  of  farming 
and  fishing  differ  from  those  of  the  Siamese  only  in  the 
shape  of  some  few  of  their  implements  and  in  their 
more  extensive  dread  of  interference  wdth  their  pursuits- 
by  the  unseen  powers  and  consequently  in  their  more 
elaborate  propitiatory  efforts.  The  usual  costume  of 
the  Siamese  Malay  consists  of  three  garments,  or  rather 
pieces  of  cloth.  With  the  men  these  are  a waist  cloth 
descending  to  the  knees,  a strip  worn  sometimes  as  a 
belt  and  sometimes  thrown  over  the  shoulder,  and  a 
small  kerchief  around  the  head.  In  the  case  of  the 
women  the  three  cloths  are  amplified  ; the  first  descends' 
from  the  waist  to  the  ankles,  the  second  is  hitched  round 
the  body  over  the  bust  and  descends  to  a little  below 
the  hips  and  the  third  is  intended  to  cover  not  only  the 
head  but  the  shoulders  and  neck  also.  The  men  usually 
shave  their  heads  while  the  women  wear  their  hair  long" 
and  knotted  on  the  top  of  the  head.  The  race  isnonhirsute 
and  such  scant  hairs  as  appear  on  the  chins  of  the  men 
are  usually  plucked  out.  On  festive  occasions  the  men 
wear  a checked  skirt  or  sarong  while  the  women  use 
bright-coloured  silk  clothes  and  dress  their  hair  with- 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


117 


flowers.  In  spite  of  the  precepts  of  Islam,  the  ladies 
contrive,  by  the  disposal  of  their  costmne,  to  reveal  the 
lines  of  their  sometimes  shapely  figures  and,  as  often  as 
not,  to  expose  their  arms  and  neck  in  a manner  which 
would  scarcely  be  tolerated  farther  south.  Indeed  the 
restrictions  imposed  upon  the  female  sex  in  other 
Mohammedan  communities  are  here  largely  absent,  the 
women  moving  about  in  public  with  freedom  equal 
to  that  of  the  men  except  upon  occasions  of  great 
ceremony,  when  ladies  appear  carefully  swathed  to  the 
eyes  and  when  they  are  rigorously  segregated  from  the 
men,  though  an  hour  or  so  earlier  they  may  have  been 
disporting  themselves  at  a public  bathing-place  clad  in 
next  to  nothing  at  all. 

The  loose  jacket,  baggy  trousers  and  bright  sarongs 
which  form  the  typical  costume  of  the  male  Malays 
of  the  south  are  rarely  seen  among  the  Siamese  Malays, 
and  then  only  on  the  persons  of  the  more  well-to-do. 

Though  Islamism  is  at  its  very  feeblest  amongst 
the  Siamese  Malays,  yet  its  prohibition  of  gambling 
and  of  the  drinking  of  alcohol,  are  very  generally 
observed,  at  least  by  the  unsophisticated  people  of 
the  east  coast  districts,  who  are  in  consequence  more 
easily  controlled  and  more  free  from  crime  than  the 
Siamese.  The  Malays  of  the  West,  however,  in  whose 
veins  is  a considerable  admixture  of  Tamil  blood, 
though  more  careful  in  the  outward  observances  of 
their  religion,  are  great  sinners  in  private  and, 
especially  in  the  towns,  are  perhaps  the  most  depraved 
communities  of  Mohammedan  Malays  in  existence.  It 
is  to  be  noted  that  the  tales  of  reckless  Malay  courage, 
combined  with  treacherous  ferocity,  which  form  a 
considerable  part  of  the  literary  nourishment  of 
English  youth,  find  singularly  little  corroboration 
among  the  Malays  of  Siam  who,  though  they  may 
occasionally  settle  a question  of  dishonour  by  recourse 


L18 


SIAM 


to  arms,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  now  prefer  to  v/rangle  it 
out  at  lengtli  in  a Court  of  Law. 

Khmer. — The  Kamhodians  now  inhabiting  Siam  are 
located  chiefly  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Korat  and 
Prachim,  the  provinces  bordering  on  Kambodia  proper, 
but  many  small  communities  of  Kambodians  are  to 
be  found  in  other  neighbourhoods,  especially  around  the 
town  of  Ratburi  in  the  west  of  Siam,  far  away  from 
Kambodia,  where  prisoners  taken  in  the  ancient  wars 
were  planted  out  in  settlements  and  given  lands, 
subject  to  the  rendering  of  military  service  to  the 
Siamese  king. 

In  costume,  customs  and  religion,  the  Kambodian 
is  now  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  the  Siamese, 
In  appearance,  however,  he  is  slightly  fairer,  perhaps 
a thought  larger  and  rather  less  Mongolian,  and 
consequently  wears  a foreign  air  which,  together  with 
his  peculiar  misi^ronunciation  of  Siamese  which  the 
lapse  of  time  is  seemingly  powerless  to  eradicate, 
renders  his  identification  a matter  of  ease.  The 
Kambodian  language  continues  to  be  spoken  in  the 
villages,  but  is  being  sup^^lanted  by  Siamese  which 
latter  is  known  to,  and  used  by  all,  as  a second  language, 
and  is  naturally  the  language  of  the  schools. 

Mon. — The  modern  Mon  race,  or  Talaing  as  the 
Burmese  call  it,  is  represented  in  Siam  by  several 
communities  inhabiting  the  banks  of  the  Menam  river 
above  and  below  the  capital,  and  scattered  through 
the  provinces  of  Ratburi  and  Kakon  Chaisi,  and  by 
a considerable  number  of  people  living  in  Bangkok 
itself.  These  are  descendants  of  prisoners  brought 
from  the  Tenasserim  province  of  Burma  during  the 
wars  between  that  country  and  Siam,  or  of  refugees 
who  have  from  time  to  time  fled  from  Pegu  and  other 
parts  of  Southern  Burma  to  escape  the  persecution  which 
the  Talaings  formerly  suffered  at  the  hands  of  the 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


119 


Burmese.  The  captives  and  refugees  on  arriving  in 
Siam  were  given  lands  to  cultivate,  in  return  for  wliicli 
tlie}^  were  placed  under  the  obligation  to  render  military 
service,  as  was  the  case  with  Mala3^s,  Ivambodians  and 
other  foreigners  in  like  circumstances.  Under  these 
conditions  they  settled  themselves  in  villages  con- 
tiguous to  their  lands  where  thej^  were  generally 
goA^erned  by  their  own  headman,  permitted  to  folloAv 
their  OAvn  form  of  Buddhist  ritual,  differing  slightly 
from  that  of  the  Siamese,  and  to  use  their  oaaui  language. 
Tlieir  descendants  occupy  the  same  lands  to-da}^  The 
communities,  in  spite  of  the  liability  to  the  detested 
military  seiwice  and  of  the  somewhat  degraded  social 
position  Avhich  that  liability  formerl}-  entailed,  haAm 
increased  in  size  and  prosperity,  many  individuals 
haA^e  risen  to  high  office  in  the  seiwice  of  the  State 
and  the  Mon  to-day  are  reckoned  among  the  more 
prosperous  people  in  Siam.  One  of  the  most  popular 
and  successful  of  Siamese  Ministers  at  the  Court  of 
St  James’s  Avithin  recent  years  Avas  a scion  of  this  race.. 
In  the  ordinaiy  course  of  events  the  old  military  laAvs 
haAm  become  unsuitable  to  the  needs  of  the  countiy 
and  liaAm  therefore  been  replaced  fjy  others  Avliich 
make  service  in  the  Arm}-  or  Navj^  compulsory  for 
all  Siamese  subjects.  Thus  one  of  the  main  influences 
for  separation  betAA^een  the  i\I6ns  and  Siamese  has  been 
removed  and  it  is  probable  that  a feAv  years  Avill  see 
the  complete  alisorption  of  the  former  by  the  latter 
race.  As  a Talaing  in  Burma,  so  a Mon  in  Siam, 
can  often  be  distinguished  by  his  superior  size  and 
lieight ; otherAvise  his  physical  ap])earance  is  almost 
identical  Avith  that  of  the  Siamese.  The  Mon  of  botli 
sexes  Avear  the  Siamese  panuwj  or  tucked-up  skii-t 
but  the  AAmmen  Avear  it  rather  more  Amluminous  than 
do  the  Siamese.  The  Mdn  ladies  also  affect  a tight- 
fitting,  Avhite  jacket  on  all  occasions,  and  wear  their 


120  SIAM 

hair  loiig  and  twisted  into  a neat  chignon  at  the  back 
of  the  head. 

Their  houses  differ  slightly  in  construction  from  those 
of  the  Siamese,  and  have  their  gable-ends  pointing 
east  and  west,  a matter  about  which  the  Siamese  is  not 
particular.  The  Mon  language  is  still  spoken  in  the 
villages,  and  is  taught  in  a few  of  the  temple  schools. 
The  Mon,  however,  all  speak  Siamese  and  that  without 
the  foreign  pronunciation  which  distinguishes  the 
Kambodians. 

Yuan. — Annamese  are  found  in  Siam  to  the  number 
of  about  6000,  and  live  principally  in  the  south-eastern 
Province  of  Cliantaburi  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Bangkok.  The  former  are  the  descendants  of  certain 
converts  to  Roman  Catholicism  who  fled  from  Aniiam 
in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  to  escape  persecution  in. 
their  own  country,  while  the  ancestors  of  the  latter 
were  mostly  prisoners  of  war  taken  in  the  campaigns 
against  the  Annamese  at  the  time  when  Kambodia  was 
a bone  of  contention  between  Siam  and  Annam.  The 
Annamese  of  Cliantaburi  continue  to  practise  the 
religion  for  which  their  forefathers  suffered  exile,  and 
those  of  Bangkok  are  also  nearly  all  of  the  same  faith. 
It  seems  that  in  former  days  the  Roman  Catholic 
Missionaries  in  Siam  found  ready  converts  in  the 
Annamese  prisoners  of  war,  and  that  in  addition  to  the 
rudiments  of  Christianity,  they  taught  them  also  the 
elements  of  military  discipline,  thereby  changing  them 
from  a miserable  crowd  of  slaves,  reluctantly  bearing 
arms  in  the  service  of  their  conquerors,  into  an  orderly 
and  useful  body  of  troops,  wherefore  the  King,  much 
pleased  with  this  arrangement,  ordered  that  all 
prisoners  subsequently  taken  in  the  Annamese  wars 
should  be  handed  over  to  the  Missionaries  for  conversion 
and  for  inclusion  in  the  ranks  of  the  Christian  soldiers. 
King  Mongkut,  early  in  his  reign,  presented  no  less  than 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


121 


3000  such  persons  in  one  batch  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Mission.  The  Annamese,  by  reason  perhaps  of  their 
adopted  religion,  do  not  show  any  tendency  to  become 
absorbed  by  the  Siamese,  though  they  strongly  resemble 
them  in  feature  and  physique.  They  still  retain  their 
peculiar  costume  of  loose  black  trousers  and  coat, 
common  to  both  sexes  but  with  the  coat  extended  into 
a sort  of  gabardine  in  the  case  of  the  women,  and  allow 
their  hair  to  grow  to  its  full  length.  They  also  continue 
to  use  their  own  language  ; the}^  are  all  able  to  speak 
Siamese  more  or  less  correctly.  Some  few  have  risen 
to  high  military  rank,  but  outside  the  Army  and  Navy 
they  are  not  found  among  the  upper  classes. 

Lawa. — The  Lawa  dr  L’wa  are  a hill  tribe  inhabiting 
the  border  ranges  to  the  west  and  south-west  of  Northern 
Siam.  The  appearance,  language,  and  traditions  of  this 
people  clearly  indicate  that,  though  now  surrounded 
by  Lao,  Siamese,  and  Shans,  and  much  modified  by 
contact  with  these  races,  they  really  belong  to  the 
Mon-Annam  family.  They  themselves  believe  that  at 
some  very  remote  period  their  ancestors  occupied  the 
whole  valleys  and  plains  of  Central  Siam,  and  it  seems 
possible  that  such  was  in  fact  the  case  though  not,  as 
has  sometimes  been  suggested,  at  the  period  of  the 
invasion  of  Siam  by  the  Lao-Tai  family.  Their  gradual 
reduction  to  a mere  remnant  of  a race  must  have  taken 
place  during  much  earlier  times,  for  they  have  nothing 
to  connect  them  directly  with  the  civilised  Khmer  who 
occupied  the  land  at  the  time  of  the  Lao-Tai  intrusions. 
It  seems  probable  that  the  remote  ancestors  of  the 
Lawa  were  a part  of  the  people  found  indigenous  in  the 
land  by  the  Brahman  Khmer  who  founded  the  kingdom 
of  Sukhotai-Sawanlvalok  and  that  in  The  fastnesses  of 
their  hills  they  have  been  left  behind  by  the  march  of 
events  since  that  remote  time,  and,  except  for  the 
admixture  of  a rude  form  of  Buddhism  with  their 


122 


SIAM 


spirit  worship  and  a recent  introduction  into  their 
language  of  a few  Shan  words,  they  have  seen  the 
Khmer,  and  later  the  Lao-Tai,  civilisations  rise  in  turn 
and  flourish  around  them,  leaving  them  in  a condition 
hut  little  removed  from  that  of  their  rude  forefathers. 
The  Lawa  is  a little  shorter  and  a little  darker,  and  has 
slightly  less  pronouncedly  Mongolian  features,  than  the 
Siamese.  He  cuts  his  hair  short  in  Siamese  fashion 
hut  wears  the  haggy  trousers  and  turhan  of  the  Shan. 

The  traveller  in  Further  India  following  the  jungle^ 
tracks  and  hridle-paths  in  any  part  of  that  maze  of 
forest-clad  mountains  and  valleys  which  lies  roughly 
Ijetween  98°  and  104°  E.  long,  and  17°  and  25°  N.  lat. 
and  which  England,  France,  China,  and  Siam  now 
divide  between  them,  may  meet  at  any  corner,  or  will 
see  crossing  his  route  hy  a hy-path,  a line  of  little, 
hlue-clad  figures,  plodding  in  single  file,  hending 
heneath  the  weight  of  tall  baskets  suspended  upon  the 
hack  by  a band  round  the  forehead,  swinging  their 
arms  before  them  and  drawing  their  breath  with  a 
peculiar  whistling  sound.  These  will  be  the  women- 
folk of  one  or  other  of  the  innumerable  tribes  which 
occupy  the  crests  and  spurs  of  the  ranges  in  this  vast 
tract,  carrying  produce  home  from  the  fields  or  to  the 
markets  held  periodically  at  the  Shan  or  Lao  villages  of 
the  valleys.  Although  belonging  to  so  many  different 
tribes,  some  of  which  are  but  remotely  inter-connected 
in  race,  and  others  not  at  all,  the  resemblance  in  the 
general  appearance  of  these  women  is  such  that  the 
casual  obseiwer  might  almost  mistake  a group  of  Kacliin 
from  near  Bhamo  for  Kamuk  about  Muang  A an.  The 
ground-work  of  their  costume  is  almost  always  dark 
l)lue  cotton  cloth  made  into  a kilt  or  skirt,  a jacket  more 
or  less  voluminous,  a cloth  for  the  head  and  gaiters  for 
the  legs.  It  is  in  the  stripes  and  ornaments  on  the  blue 
ground,  in  the  number  and  nature  of  the  cane  or  wire: 


lawa  girls. 


1 • - 


1 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


123 


bands  worn  round  the  waist,  neck  or  knees,  in  the 
method  of  fastening  the  headcloth  and  of  wearing  the 
hair,  that  the  particular  tribe  or  clan  to  which  the 
women  belong  can  be  distinguished.  The  women  of 
the  Lawa  affect  this  blue  dress,  relieved  as  a rule  only  by 
a few  thin  white  lateral  stripes  on  the  skirt.  They  also 
wear  a jacket  in  the  form  of  an  abbrevdated  gabardine 
and  usually  dispense  with  the  headcloth.  They  wear 
their  hair  long  and  gathered  into  a rough  chignon  at 
the  back  of  the  head. 

The  Lawa  cultivates  hill  rice,  is  of  a timid  and  peace- 
loving  disposition  and  is  slowly  decreasing  in  numbers. 
A jumble  of  witchcraft  and  sj^irit -worship,  made  more 
complicated  by  the  presence  of  a few  Buddhist  mendi- 
cant monks,  serves  him  for  religion.  A single  wife 
contents  him  as  long  as  he  is  in  his  natural  condition 
of  poverty,  but  should  he  b}^  chance  amass  wealth,  he  at 
once  becomes  a polygamist  of  pronounced  type.  Going 
to  market  forms  the  chief  excitement  of  his  life,  the 
government  is  represented  to  him  l)y  his  own  headman, 
and  the  outside  world  by  occasional  visits  of  Siamese 
Forest  officers  or  taxgatherers.  The  Lawa  houses  are 
large  and  strongly  constructed,  built  of  bamboo  chiefly, 
with  thatch  roofs,  and  all  inconceivably  dirty.  The  art 
of  smelting  iron  is  understood  by  the  tribe  and  is 
practised  largely  but  in  a most  primitive  manner, 
ploughshares,  knives  and  other  articles  being  made 
from  the  metal  and  sold  in  the  neighbouring  markets. 

KachE. — The  Kainuk,  Kamet,  Lamet,  KaBit,  Ka  Hok 
and  Pai,  are  closely  related  hill-tribes  located  partly  in 
the  mountains  of  Muang  Xan  in  the  east  of  Xorthern 
Siam  but  chiefly  in  the  neighbouring  French  dependen- 
cies of  Luang  Pral)ang  and  Chieng  Kwang.  Separated 
by  a wide  tract  of  country  from  the  hills  of  the  Lawa, 
they  nevertlieless  strongly  resemble  the  latter  and  they 
seem  to  bear  a family  likeness  to  the  Wa  who  inhabit 


124 


SIAM 


between  the  rivers  Salwiii  and  Mehkong  some  400  miles 
to  the  north,  and  also  to  the  Palanng  or  Rnmai  of  the 
hills  of  Twang  Peng,  350  miles  away  to  the  north-west. 
Like  the  last  named,  the  Kache  are  properly  classed  as 
of  the  Mon-Annam  famil}^,  and  this  despite  the  qnaint 
Lao  tale  which  traces  the  origin  of  themselves  and  the 
Kache  to  a brown  man  and  a black  man,  evolved  from 
two  pumpkins  somewhere  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Luang  Prabang,  and  who,  apparently,  propagated  the 
two  races  without  that  female  assistance  which  is  usually 
considered  necessary  to  the  achievement  of  a family. 

The  people  of  these  tribes  which  are  known  gener- 
ally to  the  Siamese  as  Ka  or  Kache,  meaning  originally 
‘ slave,’  vary  considerably  in  the  amount  of  civilisation 
to  which  they  have  attained,  some  of  them,  from  long 
and  intimate  intercourse  with  the  Lao  and  Siamese, 
having  adopted  Buddhism  together  with  many  of  the 
manners  and  customs  of  their  neighbours,  while  others, 
and  these  constitute  the  majority,  continue  in  the  rude 
and  l)enighted  condition  of  their  forefathers.  In  the 
past  they  were  invariably  regarded  by  the  Lao  chiefs 
in  whose  territory  they  lived,  as  beings  of  an  order  not 
cjuite  human  and  as  the  mere  chattels  of  the  overlord, 
to  be  bought  or  sold,  put  to  any  kind  of  forced  labour 
or  exterminated,  according  to  his  pleasure.  For  a Lao 
to  kill  a Kache  might  be  considered  as  a mischievous 
destruction  of  the  i:>roperty  of  a chief  but  in  no  sense 
amounted  to  the  crime  of  murder.  The  Kache,  largely 
outnumbering  the  Lao,  frequently  rebelled  against  the 
treatment  which  they  received,  but  were  usually  reduced 
to  order  without  much  trouble  and  were  always  after- 
wards made  l)itterly  to  expiate  such  lapses  from  docility. 
These  things,  however,  are  of  the  past.  The  Kache  are 
now  as  free  as  any  one  else  in  Siam  and  many  of  the 
Kamuk  clan  have  saved  money  and  acquired  property, 
•chiefly  by  their  work  in  the  teak  forests  where  they  are 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


125 


largely  employed  as  malioiits  and  lumber-men.  The 
loss  of  Luang  Prabang  and  of  the  provinces  east  of  the 
Mehkong  has  greatly  reduced  the  Kache  population  of 
Siam  but  the  timber  industry  draws  large  numbers 
westwards  from  the  territories  ceded  to  France,  and 
settlements  of  the  better  class  of  Kache  are  increasing 
in  the  province  of  Nan. 

The  Kache  are  considerably  shorter  and  darker  than 
the  Lao  or  Siamese  and,  like  the  Lawa,  have  features 
not  demonstratively  Mongolian  in  type.  Their  diminu- 
tive size  and  dark  colour  has  led  to  their  being  classed 
as  Negritos,  but  careful  comparison  of  their  a23pearance 
and  customs  with  those  of  true  Negritos,  such  as  the 
Semang,  at  once  contradicts  this  theory.  Their  language 
is  strikingly  similar  to  that  of  the  Lawa,  the  general 
construction  of  the  two  being  almost  identical.  Tiiere 
is  no  written  language  but  a legend  runs  that  the  tribes 
once  possessed  an  alphabet.  This,  however,  was  known 
to  one  man  only  and  consequently,  when  he  died 
suddenly  during  the  heat  of  a discussion,  was  lost. 
The  wisest  and  most  intelligent  men  of  the  tribes 
devoured  their  erudite  clansman’s  body,  in  the  hope 
of  recovering  some  part  of  his  knowledge  but  their 
efforts  in  the  cause  of  science  were  of  no  avail  and  the 
Kache  remains  illiterate. 

The  costume  of  the  male  Kache  varies  from  the 
diminutive,  striped  loin-cloth  of  homespun  cotton  with 
which  he  starts  his  adult  life,  to  the  complete  outfit 
of  baggy  trousers,  short  coat,  turban  and  sash,  which 
he  assumes,  in  more  or  less  correct  copy  of  the  Shan 
dress,  as  soon  as  he  begins  to  have  an  income  to  spend 
and  a position  to  support.  Should  he  never  aspire  to 
more  than  the  ordinary  life  of  the  wilder  hilltop 
villages,  the  loin-cloth  may  continue  to  suffice,  supple- 
mented for  village  festivals  or  on  chilly  evenings,  by 
a short  sleeveless  waistcoat  the  donning  of  which,  far 


126 


SIAM 


from  covering  liis  nakedness,  throws  into  sharper  relief 
that  part  of  him  which  his  nntntored  mind  leaves  bare. 
In  the  more  civilised  Buddhist  villages,  however,  trousers 
are  now  de  rigeur. 

The  Kache  women  wear  the  traditional  blue  skirt  of 
the  hill  people  but  many  of  them  prolong  it  almost  to 
the  ankles.  A single  white  stripe  follows  the  hem  and 
otherwise  it  is  usually  without  ornamentation.  The 
females  of  some  of  the  more  backward  clans,  however, 
such  as  the  Ka  Hok,  still  use  a knee-long,  kilt-like  skirt 
and  sometimes  weave  many  bands  of  red  and  white  into 
it.  The  short  blue  jacket  which  they  all  wear  at  times, 
has  sleeves  with  a thin  white  band  round  the  upper 
arm.  Bracelets,  hairpins  and  earrings  of  silver  are 
worn,  and  the  hair  is  done  in  a ‘ bob  ’ on  the  toj)  of 
the  head  and  covered  by  a blue  head  cloth.  In  the 
23i*ivacy  of  the  home  much,  if  not  all,  of  this  costume  is 
commonly  discarded,  apparently  to  facilitate  the  per- 
formance of  household  duties.  All  the  Kache,  even  the 
more  enlightened  Kamuk,  consider  cleanliness  a mere 
fad  and  do  not  practise  it. 

The  religion  of  the  Kache  except  those  Kamuk  who 
have  adopted  Buddhism,  expresses  itself  in  the  pro- 
pitiation, by  sacrifice,  of  the  evil  spirits  by  which  they 
believe  themselves  to  be  surrounded  and  jealously 
watched  in  all  their  undertakings.  The  ranks  of  these 
‘ spooks  ’ being  constantly  recruited  from  amongst  the 
ghosts  of  departed  tribesmen,  propitiation  is  an  increas- 
ingl}^  arduous  business,  the  more  so  as  misfortune  of 
any  kind  is  invariably  attributed  to  the  malevolence  of 
some  neglected  goblin.  Most  villages  have  a meeting- 
house in  which  sacrifices  are  offered,  and  here  fowls, 
pigs  and  cattle  are  killed,  cooked,  and,  after  being 
offered  to  the  spirits,  eaten  Avith  gusto  by  the  congrega- 
tion, for  the  good  of  unfortunate  individuals  for  Avhoni 
prayers  are  desired  or  to  secure  the  general  AA^elfare  of 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


127 


the  community.  The  identity  of  any  spirit  which  it  is 
desired  to  appease,  is  usually  discoverable  by  the 
initiated,  from  a careful  scrutiny  of  the  fibres  of  a 
split  stick. 

The  Kache  villages  occupy  the  highest  crests  of  the 
mountain  ranges.  The  houses  are  comparativel.y  solid 
structures  of  timber  and  bamboo,  long  and  low,  with 
the  floor  raised  two  or  three  feet  above  the  ground  and 
the  whole  thatched  with  grass.  Marriage  is  in  theory 
a matter  of  barter,  but  in  practice  the  principals  know 
each  other  intimately  and  have  usually  come  to  a 
mutual  understanding  based  upon  practical  experiment 
before  the  arrangement  of  the  marriage  is  published. 
As  in  other  tribes  practising  ante-nuptial  free  love, 
infidelity  after  marriage  is  almost  unknown.  The 
Kache  havn  little  or  no  knowledge  of  medicine  ; the 
properties  of  a few  herbs  are  known  and  these  are  used 
for  certain  maladies,  but  the  usual  treatment  for 
any  sort  of  disease  is  the  exorcising  of  the  evil 
spirits  causing  sickness,  by  sacrifice  and  by  bloAving, 
Avhistling,  singing,  dancing  and  other  incantations, 
variations  of  which  are  common  throughout  Further 
India.  The  dead  are  abvays  buried,  usually  in  the 
jungle  at  the  edge  of  the  village  clearings.  Burial 
ceremonies  are  of  the  most  primitive,  cleansing  the 
body  of  evil  spirits  and  eating  and  drinking  heaAuly 
in  its  honour,  being  the  principal  observances.  All 
the  Kache  clans  practise  agriculture  in  temporary 
clearings  made  on  the  forest-clad  mountain  slopes. 
Here  they  groAv  rice,  maize,  millet,  a little  toliacco 
and  other  produce  but  chiefly  rice,  planting  a deal- 
ing once  or  sometimes  tAvice  and  then  making  another. 
They  are  skilful  fishermen  and  trappers  of  game. 

CiioxG.— The  Chong  are  a small  and  scattered  tribe 
inhabiting  the  mountain  range  north  of  the  Chantaburi 
province.  They  are  in  an  exceedingly  primitive  con- 


128 


SIAM 


dition,  have  no  settled  habitations  and  subsist  chiefly 
by  the  collecting  of  jungle  produce  such  as  resin, 
beeswax,  wood-oil  and  rattan,  which  they  barter  with 
the  Siamese  for  foodstuffs.  Their  customs,  beliefs  and 
language  have  much  in  common  with  those  of  the 
Kache,  and  though  some  writers  have  sought  to  class 
them  with  the  Negritos,  they  are  more  probably  of 
M6n-Annam  stock. 

Meao. — The  first  impression  on  encountering  the 
Meao,  Meo  or  Miaotzu  is  that  here  is  something  different 
from  the  usual  hillman  of  Further  India.  Instead  of 
the  almost  naked  men  and  the  generally  dirty  and 
sparsely  clad  women,  to  whose  frowsy  appearance  and 
unwashed  Mongolian  faces  the  traveller  in  this  part  of 
the  world  has  grown  accustomed,  there  appears  a neat 
and  sturdy  little  people,  in  whose  features  the  Mongolian 
type  is  distinctly  modified,  of  a bright,  cleanly  and 
intelligent  appearance,  and  of  industrious  habits.  They 
are  divided  into  eleven,  some  say  twelve,  clans,  the 
majority  of  which  are  not,  however,  represented  in 
Siam,  and  from  long  contact  have  acquired  many  points 
of  resemblance  with  the  Chinese  of  Yunnan,  the  most 
remarkable  of  which  are  their  language  and  the 
abbreviated  x>igtails  and  the  costume  of  the  men.  The 
dress  of  the  women  varies  greatly  in  the  different  clans, 
and  borrows  nothing  from  the  Chinese.  The  men  wear 
loose  blue  trousers,  a coat,  usually  dark  blue  but 
sometimes  white,  with  a turned-up  collar,  a gay  waist- 
band with  broad,  embroidered  tassels,  and  a large  blue 
turban  worn  flat  and  projecting  far  out  all  round  the 
head.  All  carry  an  embroidered  bag  which  serves  as 
a capacious  pocket,  and  many  go  armed  with  a dah,  or 
sword,  and  a crossbow.  The  women  of  one  clan  wear 
a short,  pleated  kilt  descending  to  the  knees,  a white 
crossover  jacket  embroidered  at  the  edges,  with  sleeves 
turned  up  with  red,  and  a broad  embroidered  collar. 


MKAO  WOMEN 


MEAO  GIRL 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


129 


ill  sliape  like  that  of  a sailor,  wliicli  covers  half  the 
hack  ; they  also  wear  a turban  of  coloured  cloth  and 
usually  swathe  their  legs  in  strips  of  cloth  as  a protection 
against  thorns.  In  another  clan  the  female  costume 
consists  of  a full  dark-blue  skirt,  hitched  round  the  body 
under  the  arms  and  descending  to  the  knees,  with  a 
full-sleeved  blue  jacket  over  it  and  open  down  the  front, 
a sash  round  the  waist  and  cloth  leggings  from  knee  to 
ankle.  The  top  of  the  skirt,  the  ends  of  the  sleeves,  and 
the  leggings,  are  usually  embroidered  with  white  and  red 
stripes  and  with  cowries,  beads,  mother-of-pearl  shirt 
buttons,  etc.  The  head-dress  is  very  peculiar,  being 
formed  of  a number  of  stiff  rings  of  bamboo  covered 
and  fastened  together  with  cloth  and  heavily  em- 
broidered with  beads  and  silvery  seeds,  the  whole 
forming  an  edifice  which  rises  high  above  the  back  of 
the  head  and  terminates  in  a loop  like  the  handle  of 
a basket.  Festoons  of  cock’s  feathers  and  embroidered 
ear-lappets  add  the  finishing  touches  to  this  extra- 
ordinary coiffure.  McCarthy  records  that  in  yet 
another  clan  the  coiffure  of  the  ladies,  an  equally 
elal3orate  affair,  is  made  but  once  in  several  years, 
being  kept  in  position  by  a plastering  of  beeswax. 
Francis  Gamier,  who  made  the  acquaintance  of  more 
than  one  clan  of  these  people  in  the  JMehkong  valley  in 
1861,  apparently  mistook  them  for  Midiso. 

With  the  advance  of  the  French  to  the  J\Iehkong, 
Siam  has  lost  the  greater  ]>art  of  her  kfeao  subjects,  but 
a certain  numl^er  of  villages  are  to  be  found  on  the 
Avest  side  of  that  riA^er  and  in  other  parts  of  Northern 
Siam,  and  as  the  ]3re Availing  soutlward  and  AA^estAA^ard 
moA^ement  of  the  A^arious  clans  of  this  people  continues, 
more  communities  Avill  doubtless  be  established  there 
in  the  future. 

The  Meao  liA^e  in  strongl}"  built  houses  AAdtli  timber 
or  mud  AA^alls  and  stone  floors,  generally  perched  on  the 
I 


130 


SIAM 


crest  of  the  highest  available  mountains.  They  use 
a rough  bedstead,  stools  and  tables,  all  of  which  are 
(‘onspicuously  absent  from  the  houses  of  the  Kache. 
Their  agriculture  is  carried  on  in  forest  clearings  on 
the  sides  of  the  mountains  on  which  they  have  their 
settlements,  and  they  grow  rice,  maize,  tobacco,  hemp, 
vegetables  ‘ of  sorts  ’ and  opium.  They  keep  cattle,  goats 
and  a few  ponies.  The  women  are  much  occupied  with 
weaving  and  embroidery,  the  results  of  their  labour  being 
often  of  artistic  value.  The  Meao  are  monogamists  and 
their  marriages  which  are  usually  2:)receded  by  a period 
of  irregular  co-habitation,  are  accomj)anied  by  elaborate 
ceremonies.  Their  religion  is  the  usual  sj^irit-worship, 
observed  by  means  of  sacrifice,  by  heavy  eating  and  by 
the  copious  drinking  of  rough,  strong  spirit  distilled 
from  rice.  They  practise  burial  of  the  dead  and  their 
custom  of  2^1acing  a white  cock  beside  the  corpse  to  do 
iDattle  with  the  great  lizard  suj)230sed  to  bar  the  j^assage 
of  the  soul  to  paradise,  may  possibly  denote  some  remote 
connection  with  the  Chinbok  tribes  far  away  to  the  west 
on  the  other  side  of  Burma.  The  Meao  say  they  once  had 
a written  character  but  have  lost  it.  They  now  use  the 
Chinese  in  which  a small  x^roportion  of  their  men  are 
XU'oficient.  They  also  use  the  Chinese  calendar.  There 
ax:>X)ears  no  reason  to  warrant  affiliation  of  the  Meao 
with  the  races  of  Mon-Annam  stock,  while  language, 
customs  and,  to  some  extent,  apx^earance,  seem  to  hint  at 
connection  with  the  Tibeto-Burman  races.  They  are 
therefore  noAv  included  among  the  latter,  though 
subsequent  investigation  may  x^ossibly  such 

classification  quite  Avrong. 

The  Muhso  are  another  Avidely  distributed  tribe, 
sux)i30sed  to  be  of  Tibeto-Burman  stock.  They  some- 
times call  themselves  Lahu  or  I^ahuna,  Muhso  being 
ax)X)ai‘cntly  a corrux:)tion  of  one  of  the  Chinese  names 
lor  the  tril^e.  Their  traditions  indicate  an  ancient 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAISI 


131 


Muliso  kingdom  sitnated  south  of  Talifii  in  Ynnnan, 
and  not  very  far  from  the  borders  of  Tibet,  which 
latter  conntiy  was  prol^ably  the  cradle  of  their  race. 
Migrations  to  the  southward  caused  by  internal  strife, 
by  aggression  of  foreign  tribes  or  by  excess  of  popula- 
tion, brought  into  existence  a series  of  Mnhso  com- 
munities scattered  oA^'er  the  north  of  Further  India  and 
bound  together  in  a confederacy  Avhich  in  time  greAv  to 
such  poAA-er  as  to  aronse  the  jealousy  of  China.  A long 
struggle  AAntli  the  latter  poAver  AA^as  the  result,  and  this 
ended  some  tAventy-fiA^e  years  ago,  in  the  disruption  of 
the  confederacy,  since  AAdiich  time  the  Mnhso  liaA^e 
continnally  jonrneyed  still  further  sontliAA^ards  to  find  an 
escape  from  their  conquerors  and  persistent  oppressors. 
This  moA'ement  has  brought  them  in  considerable 
numbers  into  Siam  and  especially  into  the  district  of 
Mnang  Fang  in  the  far  nortliAA^est  corner  of  the  Chieng 
Mai,  or  Payap,  Monton  AAdiere,  indeed,  there  has  for  some 
years  been  established  a Mnhso  chieftain  of  AAude- 
extending  influence,  flflie  features  of  the  Muhso  are  of 
a modified  Mongolian  type  and  in  stature  they  are 
hardly  less  diminutiA^e  than  the  ]\leao.  The  costume 
of  the  men  is  practically  that  of  the  Yunnanese  China- 
men, that  is,  it  consists  of  baggy  blue  trousers,  a loose, 
long,  blue  coat  or  blouse  tied  in  at  the  AA^aist  by  a cloth, 
and  a blue  turban.  Sometimes,  hoAA^eA^er,  the  coat  is 
a short,  double-breasted,  bolero  affair.  The  AA^omen  AA'ear 
a skirt  hitched  round  the  AA^aist  and  falling  a little 
beloAA"  the  knees,  of  a blue  ground  AAuth  lateral  stripes 
of  colour  AA'OA^en  into  it.  A long  black  or  blue  coat 
split  up  the  sides  so  as  to  make  coat-tails  in  front  and 
behind,  coA^ers  the  uiAper  part  of  the  body  and  hides  a 
good  deal  of  the  skirt.  It  is  fastened  at  the  neck  and 
falls  aAA'ay  in  front  leaAung  Ausible  an  iiwerted  Y of  bare 
skin,  extending  to  the  AA^aist.  The  AAdiole  costume  is 
embroidered  at  the  edges  and  is  studded  AAuth  sih^er 


132 


SIAM 


buttons  and  broaches,  in  the  making  of  which  the  Muhsa 
are  very  adept.  The  head-dress  of  the  females  is  the 
usual  blue  cloth,  each  clan  having  its  own  peculiar 
method  of  wearing  the  same.  A silver  torque,  a pair 
of  large  silver  earrings  and  a number  of  cane  neck- 
rings,  the  latter  to  avert  barrenness  and  other  forms  of 
ill-fortune,  are  worn  by  all  women.  The  ensemble  of  the 
costume  has  a pleasing  though  rather  sombre  effect. 
The  weapons  of  the  Muhso  are  sword  and  crossbow. 
The  latter  discharges  an  arrow  made  of  bamboo,  some- 
times tipped  with  poison,  capable  of  bringing  down 
tiger,  bear  and  other  big  game  at  100  yards’  distance. 

The  Muhso  cultivate  the  mountain  ridges  and  slopes 
round  about  their  villages  and  are  skilful  husbandmen, 
obtaining  good  crops  of  rice,  maize,  millet,  tobacco  and 
opium.  Their  houses  are  well  built  of  the  usual  timber 
and  bamboo.  Their  religion  is  in  the  main  animistic 
but  is  imbued  with  Buddhism.  Whilst  observing  most 
of  the  ceremonies  of  ordinary  animistic  beliefs,  they 
meet  together  for  worship  in  a special  building,  set 
apart  for  the  purpose  in  each  village,  on  the  eighth  day 
of  the  new  moon,  at  full  moon,  and  on  the  eighth  and  last 
days  of  the  waning.  They  practise  circumcision.  Their 
animism  comes  out  especially  in  a religious  festival 
which  they  hold  once  every  year  and  at  which  sacrifices 
of  fowls,  pigs  and  cattle  are  offered,  with  the  inevitable 
accompaniment  of  strong  liquor.  Sir  George  Scott,  who 
has  observed  the  Muhso  in  many  regions  of  Further  India, 
says  that  in  their  older  northern  seats  they  are  Buddhists  of 
a sort  but  that  those  wdio  have  wandered  far  to  the  south- 
Avard  have  reverted  to  Animisn.  This  probabl}^  explains 
the  mixed  religious  customs  of  the  Muhso  of  Siam. 
They  bury  their  dead  in  Avooden  coffins  Avitli  a great 
deal  of  ceremony  of  the  sort  practised  by  most  spirit 
Avorshipx^ers.  In  the  bag  AAdiich  every  Muhso  carries 
slung  from  his  shoulder,  a musical  instrument  of  the 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


133 


Hioiitli-orgaii  kind  will  usually  be  found,  an  instrnment 
made  of  reeds  fixed  into  a small  dried  gonrd  or  a 
hollowed  piece  of  wood.  The  instrnment  is  blown  into 
throngh  a mouthpiece,  and  notes  are  made  by  manipulat- 
ing air-holes  in  the  reeds  with  the  fingers.  A low, 
sweet  sound  is  produced  and  the  little  airs  of  a iveird 
cadence  which  the  performer  plays  while  walking  to 
market  or  watching  the  crops,  are  very  pleasing  even 
to  nnaccnstomed  ears.  This  instrnment,  called  ‘ ken,’ 
is  used  to  accompany  the  queer  dancing  to  which  the 
]\Inhso  are  greatly  addicted.  The  ‘ ken  ’ in  various 
forms  is  common  to  many  of  the  people  of  Further 
India,  In  the  hill-tracts  to  the  far  north  it  is  formed 
of  a single  reed  eight  inches  long,  thrust  into  a tiny 
gonrd  and  producing  only  three  or  four  notes,  while 
among  the  Lao  in  Siam  it  has  reached  its  full  develop- 
ment as  a powerful  instrnment  of  considerable  compass, 
with  fourteen  reeds  varying  from  one  and  a half  to 
twelve  feet  in  length. 

The  Mnhso  has  no  written  character,  bnt  a few  of  the 
men  can  read  Chinese,  nsnally  very  badly. 

The  Knwi  or  Kwi  or  Lalm  Hsi  are  closely  related  to 
the  Mnhso,  the  two  tribes  speaking  different  dialects  of 
the  same  language  and  understanding  each  other  fairly 
well.  Except  that  the  Kmvi  cremate  their  dead  instead 
of  burying  them  as  do  the  ]\Inhso,  their  customs  and 
religion  are  almost  identical. 

Tlie  Akha  or,  as  they  are  more  commonly  called,  Kaw, 
are  not  found  in  large  numbers  in  Siam,  though  they 
are  fairly  numerous  in  the  districts  nortli  and  east  of 
Luang  Prabang  which  have  passed,  within  the  last  few 
years,  from  Siam  to  France.  In  the  mountains  of  the 
Mnang  Fang,  Chieng  Sen  and  Chieng  Ivawng  districts 
of  the  Payap  Monton,  they  have  a few  widely  scattered 
villages  bnt  there  are  probably  not  more  than  2,000 
of  them  in  the  whole  country.  They  have  been 


134 


SIAM 


classed  with  the  tribes  of  Tibeto-Biirman  stock, 
Warington  Smytli  remarks  their  close  resemblance  to 
the  Miihso.  Sir  George  Scott,  however,  while  placing 
the  Miihso  comparatively  close  to  the  Burmese,  finds 
no  grounds  for  including  the  Ivaw  in  that  group  other 
than  those  of  convenience  and  of  politeness  to  Dr 
Grierson.  Except  by  their  superior  size  and  ugliness 
tlie  Kaw  men  are  scarcely  distinguishable  in  general 
aj^pearance  from  the  Muhso  or  from  the  most  highly 
civilised  of  the  Kaclie  tribesmen.  Their  features  how- 
ever are  coarser,  the  chin  j^rojecting  remarkably  and, 
like  the  Meao,  they  wear  a small  x^igtail  hidden  under 
their  turban.  The  women  of  the  tribe  are  unmistak- 
able. Their  head-dress  is  peculiar  and  appears  much 
too  large  for  them,  while  their  other  garments  invariably 
give  the  impression  of  being  too  small.  The  head- 
dress resembles  a small  crinoline  or  basket  of  bamboo 
hoops  covered  with  cloth.  The  affair  is  heavily  en- 
crusted Avith  pieces  of  sih^er,  coins,  shells  and  beadlike 
seeds  and  is  A\nrn  covering  the  AAdiole  of  the  head  and 
descending  so  Ioav  on  the  forehead  as  almost  to  conceal 
the  eyebroAA's.  The  remainder  of  the  costume  of  the 
female  KaAV  consists  of  a jacket  stopping  an  inch  or 
tAvo  above  the  AAnist  and  proAuded  Avith  tight  short 
sleeA'es,  of  a skirt  covering  the  body  from  somewhere 
beloAv  the  AAnist  to  half  Avay  doAvn  the  thighs,  and  a 
])air  of  cloth  gaiters  enclosing  the  calves  of  the  legs  ; 
the  Avhole  is  much  embroidered  and  the  general  effect 
is  rather  that  of  a Scottish  Highlander  in  a suit  many 
sizes  too  small  and  minus  all  underclothing.  The  Kaw 
is  a spirit  Avorshi])per,  the  spirits  most  considered  being 
those  of  ancestors,  supposed  to  return  occasionally  from 
some  vague  aljode  of  the  departed,  situated  somewhere 
in  the  AAnst,  and  to  frequent  their  former  haunts,  AAdien, 
if  not  properly  propitiated,  they  inflict  all  sorts  of  ill 
upon  their  posterity.  Each  IvaAv  house  has  a ghost’s 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


135, 


entrance  never  to  be  nsecl  by  mortal  man  and  only  on 
special  occasions  by  mortal  woman.  Mucli  sacrifice, 
witii  lieavy  eating  and  with  drinking  to  extreme  intoxi- 
cation, accompanies  all  religions  ceremonial.  The  dead 
are  bnried  in  coffins  made  from  hollowed-ont  logs.  The 
Ivaw  are  free  loA^ers  before  marriage.  Some  of  the 
clans  are  monogamists  while  in  others  the  men  have 
as  many  wives  as  they  can  support.  The  approaches  to 
their  villages  are  usually  guarded  by  an  archway  of 
large  bamboos  which,  it  is  supposed,  prevents  the 
entrance  of  specially  malignant  spirits. 

The  Lishaiv,  a scattered  tril^e  found  in  sonth-western 
Yunnan,  in  the  Ivachin  country  of  Burma  and  in  most  of 
the  Shan  States,  are  represented  in  Siam  by  some  two 
or  three  hundred  persons  only.  The}?"  are  apparently 
related  to  the  Muhso,  but  in  habits  and  customs  are 
almost  indistinguishable  from  the  Yunnanese  Cliinese  of 
the  more  primitive  sort.  The\^  live  in  houses  with 
mud  floors,  both  sexes  wear  loose  blue  coats  and 
trousers  and  large  l)lue  turbans,  and  they  nearl)-  all 
speak  Chinese  in  addition  to  their  own  language  which 
has  much  in  common  with  that  of  the  Muhso.  They 
are  clever  agriculturists  and  practise  also  the  blacks-mith’s 
trade  and  the  silversmith’s  art. 

The  Yao  or  Yao  Yin  are  recent  arrivals  in  Siam, 
whither  they  have  apparently  l^een  driven  from  the 
mountains  further  north  and  from  the  east  of  the 
]\lehkong.  Off-shoots  from  their  numerous  clans  have 
settled  in  the  hills  round  Chieng  Sen,  Chieng  Kawng, 
and  in  the  province  of  Yan,  where  they  have  felled 
great  tracts  of  jungle  for  the  cultivation  of  rice,  opium, 
cotton,  and  other  produce.  It  is  difficult  to  j:)lace  the  Yao, 
but  as  there  are  indications  of  relationship  between 
them  and  the  ^leao  they  may  be  considered,  until  more 
is  known  of  them,  as  of  Tibeto-Burman  stock.  Like  so 
- mail}"  other  tribes  of  the  neighl)ourhood,  the  Yao  have 


136 


SIAM 


adopted  many  of  tlie  ways  of  the  Yunnanese  Chinese 
whom  they  much  resemble  in  the  style  of  their  houses, 
the  dress  of  their  men  folk  and  their  methods  of  agri- 
culture. The  costume  of  the  women  varies  in  the 
different  clans,  chiefly  in  the  matter  of  head-dress,  that 
of  the  Ting  Pan  Yao,  the  senior  clan  of  the  tribe  being 
the  most  striking.  The  coiffure  consists  of  a large 
square  pad  with  a hole  in  the  middle,  supported  above 
the  head  by  stiff  bands  attached  to  the  corners  and  to 
another  band  fitting  close  round  the  head.  The  hair  is 
passed  through  the  hole  and  is  gummed  dovm  with 
resin  on  the  top  of  the  pad,  a cloth  of  varying  colour 
and  with  tassels  depending  from  the  corners  being 
spread  over  all.  This  edifice  cannot  of  course  be 
removed  without  a lengthy  operation  and  is  therefore 
retained,  when  once  made  up,  for  many  weeks  at  a time. 
The  Lanten  Yao,  of  whom  there  are  now  many  in  Siam, 
provide  their  women  with  a practicable  hat,  much  like 
the  sun-hat  worn  by  the  Siamese  peasants.  The  rest  of 
the  Yao  female  costume  consists  of  a long  sleeved  coat 
or  gabardine  descending  almost  to  the  ankles  and  slit 
up  the  sides,  like  that  of  the  Muhso,  to  reveal  an 
embroidered  i:>etticoat  which  covers  the  body  from  the 
waist  to  below  the  knees. 

All  the  Yao  clans  are  imbued  to  a certain  extent  with 
Chinese  culture  which  gives  them  many  advantages 
over  the  other  hill-tribes.  Many  of  the  men  read  a 
little  Chinese  and  all,  even  those  who  are  quite  illiterate, 
pay  the  greatest  reverence  to  books  as  books,  and  apart 
altogether  from  their  contents  ; in  fact  no  Yao  house  is 
considered  completely  furnished  without  at  least  one 
book  conspicuously  displayed  hanging  on  the  wall. 

The  houses  are  built  of  split  logs,  with  earth  floors. 
The  interiors  are  dark  and  begrimed  with  the  smoke 
which  constantly  arises  from  the  open  baked-earth 
fireplaces,  of  which  there  are  usually  several  in  each 


YAO  MAX  AND  WOMAN. 
(l)Or  SAWA.) 


YAO  WO.MKX  OF  MUAXOt  FAXG  IX  FULL  DKFSS, 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


137 


house.  The  Yao  grow  rice,  cotton,  maize  and  opium, 
and  keep  cattle,  a few  goats  and  innumerable  pigs  and 
fowls.  Their  religion  is  plain  spirit  worship,  various 
propitiating  services  being  held  at  the  time  of  sowing 
and  reaping,  and  during  sickness.  A ceremony  of 
importance  is  the  house-warming.  The  spirits  which, 
if  left  undisturbed,  would  infest  the  house  and  bring 
all  sorts  of  ill-luck,  are  invited  to  dine  upon  an  altar- 
like structure  erected  in  the  middle  of  the  neAV  house, 
and  (Avhen  supposed  to  be  seated  and  at  Avork  upon  the 
AHctuals),  are  carried  ont,  food,  altar,  and  all,  by  the 
householder  and  his  friends  and  deposited  Avitli  much 
shouting  and  firing  of  guns  at  a safe  distance  in  the 
jungle.  A similar  ruse  to  evict  malignant  spirits  is  in 
frequent  practice  amongst  the  Malays  and  in  many 
other  parts  of  Further  India.  Betrothal  and  marriage 
are  matters  of  some  formality.  Offerings  presented  by 
the  principals  to  each  other  in  the  presence  of  relations, 
a comparison  of  horoscopes  and  the  payment  of  a doAver 
by  the  bridegroom,  precede  betrothal,  some  days  of 
feasting  folloAv  it,  and  after  an  inteiwal  the  bride  is 
formally  surrendered  at  the  equally  formal  entreaty  of 
the  bridegroom,  and  further  feasting  at  the  house 
of  the  latter  concludes  the  ceremony.  All  the  clans 
are  monogamous.  The  Ting  Pan  Yao  burn  tlieir 
dead  and  bury  the  ashes.  The  Lanten  and  other  clans 
simply  bury.  Pigs  are  sacrificed  at  funerals. 

The  Siaaiese. — It  has  already  been  sheAvn  hoAv  the 
Siamese,  or  Thai,  are  a jAeople  of  peculiarly  mixed 
origin  and  hoAv  they  are  at  the  present  moment  under- 
going still  further  gradual  modification  in  consequence 
of  the  frequent  inter-marrying  of  foreigners  of  many 
races,  but  chiefly  Chinese,  AAntli  their  AA^omen,  the 
children  of  AAdiich  unions  are  rapidly  merged  in  the 
preponderating  race.  In  spite  of  this,  lioweA^er,  the 
Siamese  are  a highly  distinctive  people  and  it 


138 


SIAM 


is  astoiiisliing  “ to  note  how  rapidly  foreign  elements 
introduced  from  many  widely  separated  parts  of  the 
world,  tone  down  and  assume  the  general  attributes 
characteristic  of  the  nation  which  the  records  of  ancient 
writers  show  to  have  been  fairly  constant  for  many 
centuries. 

‘ Comme  I’aisance  se  trouve  dans  le  bon  marche  des 
choses  necessaires  a la  vie,  et  comme  les  bonnes  moeurs 
se  causent  plus  facilement  dans  une  aisance  moderee 
que  dans  une  pauvrete  accompagnee  de  trop  de  travail 
on  dans  une  oisivete  trop  abondante,  on  pent  assurer 
que  les  Siamois  sent  de  bons  gens.’  So  wrote  De  La 
Loubere  some  200  years  ago  and  the  dictum  as  regards 
l^oth  their  general  character  and  the  causes  which 
have  contributed  to  its  formation  is  entirely  applicable 
to  the  Siamese  of  to-day. 

The  character  of  the  average  Siamese  is  marked 
by  a general  friendly  but  careless  politeness,  tinctured 
considerably  with  subserviency  towards  superiors  and 
with  arrogance  towards  inferiors.  His  manners,  which 
are  naturally  good,  are  developed  by  the  habit  of  respect 
towards  his  parents,  his  teachers  and  the  members 
of  the  priesthood,  which  he  is  taught  to  adopt  at  an 
early  age.  Amongst  the  upper  classes  it  is  common 
to  meet  with. a quiet  dignity  and  serene  politeness  rarely 
excelled  in  the  most  refined  countries  of  the  world, 
while  the  manners  of  the  peasantry  surpass  those  of 
the  industrial  and  agricultural  classes  of  Europe  as 
is  commonly  the  case  wdth  nations  of  the  Far  East. 
Towards  Europeans  the  behaviour  of  the  Siamese  often 
leaves  something  to  be  desired,  which  is  mainly  due 
to  the  fact  that  every  Siamese  considers  himself,  by 
virtue  of  his  nationality  and  quite  apart  from  every 
other  consideration,  vastly  the  superior  of  any  foreigner. 
The  sentiment  which  prompts  the  heaving  of  half 
bricks  at  the  alien  does  not  belong  peculiarly  to  any  one 


THE  llACES  OF  SIAM 


139 


nation.  In  tlie  Siamese  it  is  more  strongl}^  developed 
tlian  among  most  other  people  and  it  is  to  the  credit 
of  their  manners  that  the  European  vdio  dwells  with 
them  experiences  rather  less  of  its  unpleasant  effect 
than  does  the  foreign  visitor  in  most  European 
countries.  It  may  also  he  noted  that  the  European 
in  Siam  sometimes  exhibits  a dislike  for  his  hosts 
Avhich  is  scarcely  calculated  to  encourage  the  virtue 
of  politeness. 

The  Siamese  is  naturally  submissive  to  those  whom 
he  recognises  as  his  superiors  l)ut  in  his  general 
dealings  with  the  world  displays  considerable  in- 
dependence and  self-reliance.  He  is  light-hearted, 
open  and  frank,  kindly  and  hospitable  and,  in  spite 
of  occasional  lapses  into  cruelty  and  apathetic  indifference 
to  the  sufferings  of  others,  generally  humane.  He  is 
of  a peace-loving  disposition  and  considering  the 
facilities  which  he  has  until  lately  enjoyed,  little 
given  to  the  commission  of  violent  or  other  crimes. 

The  unenviable  reputation  which  the  lower  classes 
have  acquired  as  thieves  is  not  supported  by  facts, 
comparisons  between  the  statistics  of  Siam  and  other 
eastern  countries  being  in  this  respect  distinctly 
favourable  to  the  former,  more  especially  since  the 
country  has  been  supplied  with  organised  machinery 
for  the  suppression  of  crime.  Though  an  able  and 
intelligent  cultivator  of  the  soil,  though  exemplaiy 
as  a schoolboy  and  industrious  as  an  office  clerk,  the 
Siamese  has  been  almost  unanimously  condemned 
by  foreign  observers  as  of  an  incorrigible  laziness. 

The  visitor  to  Siam  rarely  penetrates  beyond  the 
capital,  and  there  he  at  once  notices  that  all  the 
manual  labourers,  the  ’rickshaAv  pullers,  road-menders, 
ricemill-hands,  carpenters,  bootmakers,  builders,  etc., 
as  well  as  most  of  the  shop-keepers,  are  Cliinese. 
Hence  he  jumps  to  the  conclusion  that  tlie  diligent 


140 


SIAM 


Celestial  is  in  a fair  way  to  driving  the  Siamese  out  of 
■existence  in  liis  own  country.  Sncli  is,  however,  by 
no  means  the  case,  the  native  never  having  attempted 
competition  with  the  Chinaman  in  the  labour-markets 
of  the  capital.  The  Siamese  is  by  nature  a rustic  ; 
when  he  lives  in  Bangkok  he  does  so  because  he  has 
been  brought  there,  either  he  or  his  forebears,  for 
the  Royal  service  or  as  a more  or  less  indefinitely 
attached  member  of  the  household  of  one  or  other 
of  the  nobility.  There  he  has  been  kept  in  the  idleness 
of  easy  menial  service  and  there  he  has  watched  the 
various  industries  of  the  capital  created  and  developed 
by  the  Chinese  and  to  a great  extent  for  the  Chinese. 

It  has  never  entered  his  head  that  he,  a fed  retainer, 
should  enter  into  competition  with  the  starving  alien 
coolies  who  flock  to  the  capital  from  China  for  the 
purpose  of  finding  work.  It  says  something  for  the 
race  that  the  descendants  of  these  Siamese  retainers 
and  swash-bucklers  make  as  good  citizens  of  the 
capital  as  they  do.  The  gradual  change  of  custom 
has  thrown  thousands  of  them  out  of  the  employment 
which  brought  them  to  the  city  but  the}^  have  taken 
advantage  of  the  education  supplied  by  the  Govern- 
ment and  the  foreign  Missions  and,  while  many  have 
gone  back  to  the  land  the  majorit}^  now  obtain  clerk- 
ships, go  into  the  Government  service  or  set  up  as 
small  shopkeepers,  and  it  is  creditable  that  the  residue 
of  idlers,  loafers  and  habitual  criminals  is  not  under 
the  circumstances  more  numerous.  In  his  usual 
surroundings  the  Siamese,  though  very  far  from  being 
a glutton  of  work  for  work’s  sake,  does  sufficient  to 
keep  him  in  comfort  according  to  his  standards,  and 
rarely  comes  to  grief  through  sheer  idleness.  The 
women,  whether  in  town  or  country,  are  always  busy, 
managing  their  houses  and  children,  trafficking  in  the 
]:>azaars,  doing  the  light  work  in  the  fields,  and  market- 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


141 


ing.  The  fact  that  women  are  seen  paddling  to 
market,  their  hnsbands  reclining  at  ease  in  the  boat, 
has  been  cited  as  an  example  of  the  superlative  indolence 
of  the  Siamese  manhood,  bnt  in  almost  any  conntiy 
town  of  Europe  a similar  state  of  things  prevails  when, 
on  market  days,  the  coimtry- women  come  staggering 
in  under  the  weight  of  baskets  of  produce,  accompanied 
by  their  men-folk  who  carry  nothing  bnt  their  pipe  and 
stick.  The  Siamese,  like  the  Bnrman  is  a spendthrift 
and,  with  rare  exceptions,  most  nnbnsinesslike.  He 
spends  his  money  freely  in  the  pursuit  of  pleasure 
and  provided  he  can  laugh  he  takes  no  thought  of 
the  morrow,  wherefore  he  too  often  becomes  involved 
with  the  money-lenders  to  his  ultimate  undoing.  Both 
men  and  women  are  inveterate  gamblers  and,  since 
the  Government  has  closed  the  public  gaming-houses 
in  the  Provinces,  indulge  this  proclivity  by  cock- 
fighting,  by  lotteries  and  in  other  ways.  The  race 
has  many  artistic  leanings,  all  are  enthusiastic  lovers 
of  the  drama,  while  singing,  dancing  and  the  playing 
of  various  musical  instruments  are  common  accomplish- 
ments. The  Siamese  is  vastly  superstitious  and  arms 
himself  with  charms  against  every  imaginable  evil. 
ProAuded  these  and  his  auguries  are  all  right,  he  is 
fairly  courageous,  but  Avill  not  A^enture  his  person  Avhere 
the  fates  appear  unpropitious.  The  pros])ect  of  deatli, 
hoAveA'er,  leaA^es  him  strangely  unmoved. 

Tlie  features  of  the  Siamese  are  strong!}^  Mongolian. 
A wide  head,  flat  at  the  back,  a prognathous  jaAv,  a flat 
nose  very  broad  at  the  nostrils,  long  and  slightly  oblique 
eyes,  large  ears  and  liigh  cheek  bones,  are  tlie  usual 
lihysical  characteristics.  The  residt  is  not  very  pre- 
possessing even  according  to  the  standards  of  Further 
India,  Avhile  the  customs,  common  to  both  sexes,  of 
Avearing  tlie  hair  short  and  erect  in  a stiff  black  brush 
and  of  blackening  the  teeth  either  by  the  constant 


142 


SIAM 


cliewing  of  betel  or  by  the  application  of  a dye  obtained 
from  burnt  coconut  shell,  still  further  detract  from  the 
general  appearance.  In  complexion  the  Siamese  is  on 
the  whole  slightly  darker  than  the  other  Indo-Chinese 
races,  bnt  the  colonring  varies  very  mnch  with  indi- 
viduals, passing  from  the  almost  white  of  high-bred 
women,  through  infinite  gradations  to  the  deep  chocolate 
colour  of  the  sunburnt  peasant.  The  skin  is  not 
tattooed  except  here  and  there  with  tiii}^  charm-marks. 
The  physique  of  the  countryman  is  sturdy  and  well 
deA^eloped,  that  of  the  toAAmsman  is  less  so.  The  legs 
are  not  so  Avell  formed  as  the  upper  part  of  the  body, 
OAving  possibly  to  the  fact  that  a large  section  of  the 
people  has  liA^ed  for  many  generations  in  boats  AAdiere 
the  loAA^er  limbs  are  little  used,  AAdiile  the  arms  and 
shoulders  are  constantly  exercised  in  roAving  and 
paddling.  It  is  oAving  to  this  same  reason,  perhaps, 
that  the  AA^omen  are  usually  square-shouldered,  and 
when  seen  from  behind,  surprising!}^  manlike.  The 
average  height  is  about  5 ft.  I in.  for  men  and  4 ft. 
II  in.  for  AA^-omen. 

The  ancient  Lao-Tai  apparently  noticed  the  fact  that 
as  their  race  moA^ed  soutliAA-ard  the  size  of  its  people 
decreased  and  a prophecy  arose  that  AAdien  its  descendants 
reached  the  sea  they  AA^onld  be  no  larger  than  rabbits 
and  AAmuld  shortly  thereafter  disappear  altogether.  The 
Siamese  liaA^e  long  ago  reached  the  sea  but,  though  the 
smallest  people  of  their  family,  far  from  disappearing 
liaA^e  become  the  most  important  part  of  it. 

Tlie  principal  garment  of  the  Siamese,  both  male  and 
female,  is  a (doth  some  24  ft.  AAude  by  7 ft.  long,  the 
middle  part  of  AAdiich  is  passed  round  the  body,  AAdiich 
it  coA^ers  from  tlie  AA^aist  to  just  beloAv  the  knees,  and 
hitched  in  front  so  that  the  tAA^o  ends  hang  doAAm  before. 
These  ends  being  tAvisted  together  into  a rope  are 
passed  backAvards  betAA^een  the  legs,  draArn  up  and 


SIAMESE  GIRI.. 

(The  twisted  ends  of  the  Paiinng  may  he  seen  at  the  hack.) 


f 


i 


■■  J. 


•> 


■4  . ■'.  ■ .•  ■.  ■'  • 


r\ ' 


-t 


i 


1 


t 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


143 


tucked  into  the  waist  at  the  middle  of  the  hack.  The 
result  is  much  like  a pair  of  knee  breeches  when  seen 
from  before  but  frequently  a considerable  amount  of 
bare  thigh  is  revealed  behind.  The  garment  is  called 
Panung  and  is  clearly  of  Indian  origin,  as  it  closely 
resembles  the  form  of  body-covering  most  prevalent 
in  India,  both  in  shape  and  in  method  of  wearing.  In 
olden  days  the  women  wore  the  Panung  arranged  like 
a skirt.  When  they  took  to  tucking  it  up  is  not  certain 
but  tradition  ascribes  the  origin  of  the  alteration  to 
their  having  been  compelled  to  equip  themselves  as 
men  in  order  to  deceive  the  enemy  as  to  the  size  of  the 
army  during  one  of  the  sieges  of  Ayuthia  in  the 
sixteenth  century  a.d.  A belt  is  usually  worn  by  men 
but  not  by  women  to  keep  the  Pamuig  in  place.  The 
everyday  Panung  of  the  peasantry  is  made  of  cotton  and 
at  the  present  day  is  almost  invariably  of  foreign 
manufacture.  That  of  the  townsfolk,  more  especially 
of  the  upper  class,  is  of  silk,  or  fine  cotton,  often  of 
excellent  quality  and  much  beauty.  Patterns  are  of 
great  variety  but  an  ancient  custom  decrees  a certain 
colour  for  each  day  of  the  week  ; Sunday  light  red, 
Monday  silver  grey,  Tuesday  red,  AVednesday  green, 
Thursday  variegated,  Friday  light  blue  and  Saturday 
dark  bine.  The  dictates  of  this  custom  are  obeyed  as 
a general  rule  liy  the  women  and  more  rarely  by  the 
men.  In  the  country  the  rustic  bothers  himself  very 
little  about  clothes,  sometimes  wearing  a short  muslin 
vest  in  addition  to  the  Panung  but  more  usnall}^  going 
naked  from  the  vuist  np.  He  is  altogether  peculiar  in 
the  matter  of  head-covering.  For  some  reason  the 
Siamese  have  nothing  in  the  shape  of  a tnrban  or  head- 
cloth  snch  as  is  worn  in  one  form  or  another  by  the  men 
of  every  other  race  of  Further  India  and  to  supply  this 
deficiency  they  wear  hats,  nsnally  of  foreign  manufacture. 
The  countiwman  affects  various  kinds  and  shapes  but  is 


144 


SIAM 


most  partial  to  a liigli-crowned  and  deep-brimmed 
black  or  brown  straw  hat  Avliicli  comes  from  Austria 
and  of  which  large  numbers  are  now  annnally  imported 
into  the  country.  The  men  who  live  in  towns  aspire 
to  white  drill  coats  of  European  cut,  smart  Homburg 
hats,  cotton  stockings  and  pi]3e  - clayed  shoes,  all  of 
which,  when  worn  with  the  Panung  make  up  a neat  and 
effective  costume.  The  women  formerly  wore  nothing 
in  addition  to  the  Panung  except  a light  silk  scarf, 
called  Pahom,  wound  loosely  round  the  upper  body  so 
as  somewhat  inadequate!}^  to  cover  the  breasts  but, 
though  this  is  still  the  most  usual  costume,  a variety  of 
jackets,  varying  from  tight  scanty  waistcoat-like  affairs 
to  much  befrilled  European  blouses,  are  now  worn. 
The  high-class  ladies  also  affect  openwork  stockings 
and  high-heeled  shoes.  A pale  yellow  face-powder  is 
much  used  and  flowers  are  worn  in  the  ear,  twisted  into 
the  hair,  or  in  the  form  of  garlands.  Small  children, 
as  is  usual  in  tropical  countries,  Avear  no  clothes  except 
on  special  occasions,  unless  the  small  heart-shaped 
sih^er  or  gold  disc,  called  chaping,  suspended  by  a cord 
before  the  person  of  little  girls,  can  be  dignified  by  the 
name.  Jewellery,  some  of  it  of  most  artistic  design,  is 
much  worn  by  women  and  children.  Not  very  many 
years  ago  it  AA^as  the  custom  throughout  the  country  for 
both  sexes  to  AA^ear  the  hair  in  a short  thick  tuft  on  the  top 
of  the  head,  the  x^art  round  the  back  of  the  head  and  OA^er 
the  ears  being  shaved  clean  in  tlie  case  of  the  men,  and 
cut  close,  Avith  the  exception  of  a lovelock  hanging 
before  each  ear,  in  that  of  the  AA^omen.  This  custom 
lias  noAV  disap]Aeared  except  in  some  of  the  remote 
country  districts  and  men  and  Avomen  alike  Avear  the 
liair  cut  al)out  an  inch  and  a half  long  all  over  the  head. 
Occasionally  on  the  scaljAS  of  old  Avoinen  a thin  circular 
line  may  be  seen,  the  x^arting  betAA^een  the  close  crop 
and  the  thick  tuft  Avhich  they  AA^ore  in  their  youth.  It 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


145 


was  formerly  the  custom  also  for  the  finger  nails  to  he 
worn  long  by  the  well-to-do,  somewhat  after  the  Chinese 
manner,  but  this  usage  has  fallen  into  abeyance,  and 
long  nails  on  the  hands  of  young  men  are  now  considered 
as  a mark  of  dissoluteness. 

Bangkok,  which  fifteen  years  ago  was  little  more  than 
a gigantic  but  higgledy-piggledy  collection  of  thatched 
timber  houses  and  mat  huts,  crowded  together  on  the 
edges  of  the  canals  in  the  most  complete  confusion,  is 
now  rapidly  becoming  an  orderly  and  well-laid-out 
masonry-built  city.  The  spirit  of  change,  however,  has 
scarcely  reached  the  country  districts  and  there  the 
people  continue  to  construct  their  dwellings  in  the 
manner  and  after  the  model  sanctified  by  ancient  usage. 
The  typical  Siamese  house  stands  on  the  bank  of  a river 
or  canal  and  in  the  cool  shade  of  spreading  bamboo 
clumps.  It  consists  of  three  separate  oblong  buildings 
placed  so  as  to  form  three  sides  of  a square  and  opening 
on  to  a central  platform  of  planks  or  split  bamboo.  The 
whole  structure  is  raised  on  posts  some  five  or  six  feet 
above  ground  and  is  approached  by  a flight  of  steps  on 
the  fourth  side  of  the  square.  Often  this  fourth  side  is 
closed  to  the  outer  world  by  a plank  palisade,  in  the 
centre  of  which  is  the  main  entrance  to  the  house  at  the 
top  of  the  flight  of  steps.  A house,  however,  rarely 
attains  to  these  proportions  straight  away.  It  is  usual 
for  a young  man,  on  setting  up  an  establishment,  to 
start  with  one  oblong  building,  that  is,  one  section  of 
a completed  house,  and  this  may  satisfy  him  for  years, 
or  may  be  added  to  as  the  family  grows  and  wealth 
increases.  Each  oblong  consists  of  one  or  more  rooms 
open  on  the  side  facing  inwards,  onto  a narrow  verandah, 
which  skirts  the  central  platform.  For  ceremonial 
reasons  the  floor  of  the  verandah  is  slightly  higher  than 
the  platform,  that  of  the  interior  higher  again,  and  there 
is  sometimes  an  inner  sanctum,  the  sleeping-place  of 
K 


146 


SIAM 


the  master,  the  floor  of  which  is  highest  of  all.  ' The 
cooking-place  occupies  one  room,  whence  refuse  is 
constantly  discharged  through  the  interstices  of  the 
floor  to  form  a black  and  festering  pool  below.  Cattle 
are  also  frequently  stabled  below  the  house.  The 
material  employed  varies  from  the  flimsiest  bamboo 
matting  and  thatch  to  solid  teak  and  tiles.  An  inter- 
mediate quality,  much  used,  consists  of  teak  floor  and 
joists,  walls  of  plaited  split  bamboo,  and  roof  of  thatch 
made  from  dried  fronds  of  the  Nipah  23alm.  The  roofs, 
whether  of  grass,  Nipah,  or  tile,  are  alwaj^s  high,  steep 
and  pointed.  A word  must  be  said  of  the  floating 
houses  which  line  the  edges  of  the  river  and  the  larger 
icanals  in  Bangkok  and  other  towns  situated  in  the 
plains,  where  the  waters  are  subjected  to  tidal  influence. 
These  are  nearly  always  built  of  teak  and  covered  with 
Nipah  thatch.  Two  oblong  roofs  with  gable-ends,  united 
side  by  side  by  a gutter,  with  a third  much  smaller  roof 
at  the  back,  cover  a square  floor  of  about  forty  feet  each 
way  which  rests  ujDon  two  or  three  large  floating 
pontoons.  The  si:)ace  is  divided  into  a front  and  a back 
room  with  kitchens  and  store  room  behind  and  a small 
verandah  in  front.  Tlie  walls  are  usually  of  ^^anelled 
teak  and  are  frec[uently  enriched  with  carving  round 
the  cornices  and  door-frames.  More  usualh^  than  not 
the  front  room  is  fitted  as  a shop.  The  house  is  always 
moored  facing  outwards  on  to  the  river  and  is  ap- 
2^ reachable  l^y  water  only. 

The  staple  food  of  the  Siamese  is  rice  and  fish.  Near 
the  sea  or  the  inland  fisheries,  fish  is  eaten  fresh  and  in 
other  parts  it  is  always  aA^ailable  cured  and  2^ickled  in 
various  ways,  from  the  ordinary  sun-dried  variety  to 
the  evil-smelling  2)atrid  paste  known  as  Kapi,  in  wliich 
form  it  is  used  as  a condiment.  Fresh  rice  is  obtainable 
everyAvliere  and  in  fact  is  usually  ke23t  in  the  husk  and 
milled  with  a wooden  2^estle  and  mortar,  or  in  a rough 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


147 


liaiid  mill,  as  required.  Meat  is  also  eaten,  but,  owing 
to  religious  scruples  regarding  tlie  taking  of  life,  is 
rarely  obtainable  except  wlien  cattle  die  of  old  age  or 
sickness,  or  where  a Chinese  pork-seller  is  within  reach. 
Of  vegetables  a great  variety,  inclnding  encumbers  and 
gourds  of  many  kinds,  several  sorts  of  beans  and 
j:)nlse  and  the  tender  shoots  and  leaves  of  innnmerable 
trees  and  shrubs  are  used  as  food,  as  are,  of  course,  all 
kinds  of  tropical  fruits.  Food  is  dished  in  small  bowls 
arranged  on  a tray  and  served  on  the  floor  and  is  eaten 
with  the  fingers,  the  women  nsnally  jilacing  themselves 
a little  behind  the  men  and  eating  after  them.  A 
copious  drink  of  water  concludes  a meal  bnt  nothing  is 
drnnk  while  food  is  being  eaten.  The  regular  meal- 
times are  earh^  morning  and  sunset,  bnt  food  is 
frequently  taken  between  whiles  during  leisure  moments 
and  a midday  meal  is  becoming  common  in  the  capital. 
All  Siamese  know  how  to  boil  rice  and  to  prepare  the 
simple  dishes  which  they  mostly  use,  bnt  amongst  the 
better  class  townspeople  cooking  is  carefully  studied, 
and  has  long  been  raised  to  the  level  of  a fine  art.  The 
ladies  of  the  highest  class  are  taught  cooking  and  take 
mnch  pride  in  the  accomplishment,  paying  special 
attention  to  the  concoction  of  curries  and  the  confection 
of  sweets.  A Avell-prepared  Siamese  curry  is  a thing  of 
pure  delight  and  offers  a series  of  sensations  quite  novel 
to  the  palate  of  the  European  gourmet. 

Birth,  Childhood  and  Adolescence. — The  birth  of  a 
Siamese  infant  takes  place  in  a small  room  sometimes 
constructed  in  the  space  under  the  house  but  more 
usually  screened  off  from  one  of  the  upper  rooms,  wliere 
the  mother  lies  on  a lied  from  the  neighliourhood  of 
which  all  evil  spirits  have  been  carefully  excluded  by 
charms  and  exorcisms.  The  baby  is  received  at  birth 
by  several  wise  and  aged  women  by  whom  it  is  care- 
fully washed  and  at  once  examined  for  any  marks  or 


148 


SIAM 


peculiarities  which  may  guide  the  soothsayer  in  prog- 
iiosticating  its  future.  It  is  then  left  very  much  to 
itself  while  the  mother,  stretched  upon  a broad  plank,, 
is  subjected  to  the  heat  of  a great  fire,  a treatment 
which  is  considered,  throughout  Further  India,  as  the 
only  sure  road  to  a rapid  recovery,  but  which,  in  fact, 
often  seriously  compromises  matters  and  is  the  chief 
cause  of  the  disappearance  of  the  good  looks  of  the 
women  of  this  part  of  the  world  at  a comparatively 
early  age. 

All  newborn  infants  are  called  ‘ Deng  ’ or  ‘ Red  One,’ 
much  as  English  children  are  called  ‘ Baby,’  with  the 
prefix  Ai  or  Fww  if  a boy  and  I (pr.  ‘ ee  ’)  or  Meh  if  a girl. 
A fortnight  or  so  after  its  mother’s  cure  is  completed, 
that  is,  when  the  child  is  about  a month  old,  its  head  is 
shaved  with  the  observance  of  many  formalities  and  a 
brand  new  horoscope  is  drawn  up  for  it  by  the  family 
soothsayer,  whereupon  it  is  presented  by  its  proud 
parents  to  an  admiring  circle  of  friends  and  relations, 
iiwited  to  assist  at  the  ceremony.  About  the  time  when 
the  child  is  able  to  walk  it  becomes  necessary  to  provide 
it  with  a more  distinctive  name  than  that  of  Master  Red 
or  Miss  Red.  The  soothsayer  is  again  called  in,  the 
horoscope  is  carefully  examined,  other  portents,  if 
present,  are  considered  and  a name  is  ultimately 
selected  from  among  those  suitable  to  the  year,  month, 
and  day  of  birth.  The  soothsayer,  if  duly  instructed 
and  properly  remunerated,  can  usually  arrange  with 
the  fates  for  a name  in  accordance  with  the  fancy  of 
the  parents,  l^ut  latterly  it  has  become  common  to 
dispense  with  his  services  and  to  give  any  name  desired, 
regardless  of  the  horoscope.  There  is  no  such  thing  as 
the  family  surname  in  Siam.  The  baby  early  introduces 
a regime  of  tyranny  into  his  home.  His  mother,  father 
ami  other  relations  are  all  his  humble  slaves,  his 
lightest  wish  is  law  and  he  is  spoiled  and  petted  by 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


149 


all  who  come  near  him.  At  the  age  of  tAvo  or  so  he 
non  descends  to  be  Aveaned,  and  about  t he  same  time, 
a plump,  yellow  and  happy  little  person,  he  begins 
to  explore  the  outer  AA^orld.  He  disports  himself  in 
the  comfort  of  absolute  nudity,  bathing  in  the  canal 
or  playing  in  the  dust  Avith  the  tropic  sun  beating 
haianlessly  upon  his  sha\mn  poll  until,  at  the  age  of 
four  or  fiA-e,  head-shaving  is  partially  discontinued  and 
he  begins  to  groAV  a lock  of  hair  on  the  top  of  his  head 
AAdiich  his  mother  carefully  oils  and  tends  and  tAAusts 
into  a tight  knot  and  transfixes  Avitli  a more  or  less 
ornate  pin.  Shortly  after  this  he  begins  to  AA^ear  clothes 
and  his  education,  consisting  at  this  time  in  the  amass- 
ing of  infinite  fairy  lore,  begins.  At  the  age  of  seven 
or  eight  years,  he  goes  to  school  at  the  village  monastery 
or  perhaps,  if  he  lives  near  one,  to  a modern  school. 
His  course  of  life  here  diAmrges  from  that  of  his  sisters 
AAdio,  having  led  an  existence  entirely  similar  to  his  OAVn 
up  to  this  point,  are  usually  debarred  from  the  joys  and 
sorroAA’^s  of  book  education  and  iioaa^  liegin  to  be  inducted 
into  the  household  duties  AAdiich  Avill  form  their  care  in 
later  life.  BetAA^een  the  ages  of  ten  and  thirteen  the 
top-knot  of  both  girls  and  boys,  AAdiich  has  been  all 
this  time  agroAving,  is  cut  off,  a formal  proclaiming  of 
the  adolescence  of  the  AA'Carer,  attended  by  intricate  rites 
and  ceremonial  in  which  Buddhism  and  Brahmanism 
both  have  part.  Thereafter  the  girls  return  to  their 
household  pursuits  and  dcA'-eloping  ra])idly  into  AAmmen, 
soon  achicA^e  their  destiny  by  marriage.  The  boys 
continue  their  education  and  at  the  age  of  tAA'enty  ro 
so  receiAm  AAdiat  may  be  called  their  confirmation  in 
the  Buddhist  Faith.  This  is  accomplished  liy  the 
formal  admission  of  the  youth  into  the  Holy  Order 
of  the  Monkhood.  It  is  a tenet  of  Buddliism  that  no 
man  can  attain  to  the  true  completeness  of  his  manhood 
until  he  shall  have  renounced  the  Avorld  for  the  monastic 


150 


SIAM 


life  and  belonged  to  the  Holy  Order  of  Mendicants. 
Since  the  vows  necessary  upon  taking  Orders  are  not 
irrevocably  binding  bnt  can  be  cancelled  at  will,  every 
young  man,  tliongli  intended  for  a lay  career,  takes 
them  upon  himself  as  a part  of  his  preparation  for 
life.  It  is  usual  for  a number  of  youths  to  enter  the 
monkhood  together  and  the  occasion  is  one  of  much 
rejoicing,  feasting  and  meriymaking  on  the  part  of 
their  relations.  Dressed  in  the  gorgeous  but  curiously 
shaped  garments  which  tradition  assigns  as  the  correct 
costume  for  royalties  and  other  magnificent  persons, 
the  aspirants  form  a procession  with  their  relatives 
and  friends  and  a bevy  of  the  fairest  maidens  of  the 
neighbourhood,  visit  their  accjuaintances,  sIioav  them- 
seHes  in  public  and  • ultimately  present  themselves  at 
the  temi)le  AAdiere  the  officiating  monk  and  his  assistants 
aAvait  them.  An  impressive  ceremony  folloAvs  during 
which  the  youths,  after  a stern  catechism,  change  their 
splendid  costume  for  the  yelloAv  robes  of  the  Holy  Order, 
receive  the  begging  boAAd,  the  fan  and  other  insignia, 
and  finally  are  accepted  as  inmates  and  take  up  their 
abode  in  the  monastery  precincts.  The  AAdiole  ceremony 
expresses  a folloAAdng  in  the  footsteps  of  the  Buddha, 
the  princely  costume  of  the  novices  representing  the 
magnificence  of  the  Royal  Siddhartha,  and  the  be^y  of 
young  AA^onien,  the  AAmrldly  vanities  and  temptations, 
from  Avliich  he  freed  himself  by  the  Great  Renunciation. 

After  the  lapse  of  such  period  as  the  iieAv  monk,  or 
more  generally  his  x^arents,  may  think  x)i’oper,  release 
from  the  oaths  is  given,  Avhen  the  .youth  quits  his 
temporary  retreat  and  resumes  his  place  in  the  lay 
Avorld.  Three  months  is  the  usual  time  for  a boy  avIio 
has  no  thought  of  the  monkhood  as  a permanent  calling, 
to  wear  the  yellow  robes,  but  noAAmdays  the  period  is 
frequently  shortened  to  a month,  a fortnight  or  even  to 
a few  days  only. 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


151 


Marriage. — The  Siamese  men  nsiially  marry  at  the 
age  of  twenty  or  twenty-one,  the  women  at  fifteen  or 
sixteen.  The  old  maid  is  an  anomaly  nnknown  in  the 
land.  Although  marriage  and  all  the  preliminaries 
thereto  are  snrronnded  hy  considerable  formality  and 
ceremonial,  and  many  marriages  are  arranged  hy  relatives 
Avithont  consideration  for  the  feelings  of  the  parties,  yet 
sufficient  intercourse  is  permitted  hetAA^een  young  people, 
alAAnys  Avithin  the  limits  of  a proper  and  rigid  decornm 
to  render  marriages  of  affection,  or  at  least  of  inclination, 
the  most  common.  The  Siamese  girl,  a qniet,  modest, 
good-mannered  little  creature  and  sometimes  of  an 
attractiA^e  appearance,  is  far  behind  her  Burmese  and 
Lao  sisters  in  the  art  of  captivating  the  hearts  of  men, 
for  the  exercise  of  AAdiich  she  is  lieaAdly  handicappeci  hy 
her  short  hair  and  man-like  garments,  and  hy  the  very 
strict  ohseiwance  of  the  proprieties  in  AAdiich  she  is 
hronght  np.  Hence  her  loA^e  affairs  are  seldom  violent, 
nor  do  they  often  proceed  to  any  dangerous  length. 

A youth  looking  for  a Aidfe,  liaA'dng  conceiA^ed  an 
inclination  toAvards  some  girl  of  his  acquaintance,  and 
found  her  not  aA^erse  to  his  mild  pursuit,  points  her  out 
to  his  parents  as  the  girl  he  AA^onld  like  to  many,  and 
haAdng  thus  taken  the  initiatiA^e,  ahoAA^s  the  matter  to 
pass  out  of  his  oaaui  immediate  control.  If  the  girl  is 
knoAAm  to  he  of  fitting  station  and  otherAAdse  suitahle, 
the  running  is  then  taken  np  hy  an  aged  and  respectahle 
female  knoAim  to  hoth  families  A\dio,  being  instructed 
thereto  hy  the  parents  of  the  hoy,  proceeds  Avitli  the 
exercise  of  much  fine  diplomacA^  to  ascertain  the  feelings 
and  attitude  of  those  of  the  girl.  The  result  lieing 
satisfactory,  mntnal  friends  of  a sedate  age  meet  and 
discuss  the  matter  and,  if  no  impediment  appears,  Adsit 
the  parents  of  the  girl  AAdien  the  marriage  is  arranged, 
proAdded  alAAnys  that  the  horoscopes  of  the  principals, 
AAdien  examined  by  an  expert,  rcA^eal  no  insiirmoiintahle 


152 


SIAM 


obstacle  in  the  way  of  antagonistic  birthdays  or  irrecon- 
cilable destinies.  The  question  of  settlements  is  an 
important  one,  both  families  being  required  to  contribute 
to  the  capital  on  which  the  young  people  will  start  life 
and  to  share  the  expenses  of  the  wedding.  The 
ceremony,  if  properly  observed,  takes  place  at  the  house 
of  the  bride  and  lasts  for  two  days.  The  bridegroom 
escorted  thither  by  his  friends  and  a hired  band,  makes 
suitable  presents  to  his  lady  and  her  father,  and  is 
installed  in  the  room,  a temporary  adjunct  to  the  bride’s 
parental  home,  constructed  at  his  own  expense,  where  the 
honeymoon  will  be  passed.  He  and  his  relatives  now 
present  to  the  parents  of  the  bride  their  share  of  the  Thun 
or  capital  on  which  the  young  establishment  is  to  start  life, 
and  also  a tray  bearing  all  the  paraphernalia  for  the 
betel-chewing  and  which,  as  the  most  significant  part  of 
the  ceremony,  gives  the  name  Kan  Mdk  to  the  whole 
business.  Meanwhile  the  main  part  of  the  house  fills 
v/ith  acquaintances,  friends  and  relations,  who  eat, 
drink,  and  make  merry,  while  a choir  of  monks  chant 
doxologies  and  repeat  Buddhist  formulas  appropriate 
to  the  occasion.  Then  also  the  Thun  is  carefully 
counted  over  and  discussed.  Later  the  bride  and 
bridegroom  appear,  and  kneeling  together  united  by  a 
holy  cord,  have  rice  sprinkled  upon  them  and  holy 
water  from  a conch  shell  poured  over  them  by  the  guests. 
They  are  then  separated  from  each  other,  and  the  boy 
spends  the  rest  of  the  night  serenading  his  lady  love 
with  the  assistance  of  a hired  band.  On . the  follovvfing 
morning  a feast  is  given  to  the  officiating  monks, 
spasmodic  merriment  continues  through  the  day,  and 
in  the  eveniug  the  Infide  is  formally  conducted  to  the 
specially  prepared  chamber  of  hymen  and  there  left, 
for  the  first  time  since  her  betrothal,  alone  with  the 
bridegroom.  The  couple  continue  to  live  with  the 
bride’s  family  for  some  months,  often  until  the  first 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


153 


child  is  born.  To  save  expense  the  marriage  ceremony 
is  very  often  cut  short  at  the  point  where  the  bridegroom 
presents  the  Thun  and  the  betelnnt  tray,  the  bride 
being  brought  to  him  immediately  afterwards.  In 
cases  where  the  girl  is  of  much  lower  social  position 
than  the  boy,  all  ceremony  is  often  dispensed  with,  as 
is  naturally  the  case  also  on  the  rare  occasions  when 
the  parents  withholding  consent  the  parties  elope 
together.  Snch  unions  are  looked  upon  by  the  world 
as  quite  regular,  and  children  resulting  therefrom  are 
equally  legitimate  in  the  eyes  of  the  law  with  those 
born  of  marriages  at  which  full  ceremony  has  been 
observed. 

Polygamy,  being  nowhere  directly  forbidden  by  the 
teachings  of  the  Buddha,  is  considered  permissible,  that 
is,  a man  may  contract  connubial  relations  with  as  many 
women  as  he  can  afford  to  keep,  but  only  the  first  wife  is 
ever  married  with  ceremony  and  she  remains  the 
acknowledged  head  over  all  subsequent  members  of  the 
household.  The  wives  frequently  live  all  together  in 
the  same  house,  in  fact  as  a lady  gets  on  in  ^-ears  slie 
usually  deems  it  politic  to  surround  her  husband  with 
lesser  wives  whereby  he  is  kept  from  roaming  and  her 
OAvn  importance  as  the  head  of  a large  household  is 
enhanced.  In  the  case  of  a first  wife,  divorce  is  a 
matter  of  mutual  consent  and  division  of  property,  but 
though  thus  easy  of  attainment  it  is  avoided  if  possil:>le 
on  account  of  pul3lic  opinion.  Lesser  wives  can  be  j)ut 
away  at  the  will  of  the  husband.  All  children  parti- 
cipate in  inheritance,  but  those  of  the  first  wife  are 
entitled  to  a larger  share  than  others.  No  stigma 
Avhatever  attaches  to  the  position  of  lesser  wife.  While 
the  households  of  the  nobility  often  attain  to  very  large 
dimensions,  the  lower  classes  practise  polygamy  very 
little. 

Death. — The  firm  and  unshakeable  belief  in  the  chain 


154 


SIAM 


of  past  and  future  existences  and  in  tlie  temporary 
nature  of  heaven  and  hell  with  which  every  Siamese  is 
imbued  by  his  religion,  robs  death  of  most  of  its  terrors 
for  him.  Consequently,  when  to  his  dying  ear  comes  the 
reiterated  cry  of  Plira  Arahang ! Plira  Araliang ! ‘Lord! 
Lord  ! ’,  by  which  his  sorrowing  relations  seek  to  fix 
his  mind  upon  the  Great  Beatitudes,  though  he  may 
realise  that  this  means  death  immediate,  his  failing 
thoughts  turn  rather  to  speculation  as  to  his  future 
birth  than  to  the  horrors  of  his  present  situation  and 
impending  dissolution,  and  thus  he  dies  borne  up  and 
comforted  at  the  last  by  the  kindly  philosophy  which 
has  eased  his  path  through  life.  After  death  the  body 
is  washed  by  the  relatives,  enshrouded  in  clean  white 
cloth  and,  with  a coin  placed  in  the  mouth  for  the 
payment  of  toll  at  the  gates  of  Paradise,  is  placed  in 
a coffin.  During  this  ceremony  a choir  of  monks  intone 
sacred  verses  and  formulas  impressing  upon  the  sur- 
vivors the  vanity  of  worldly  things  and  the  sorrow  and 
illusion  of  human  life.  A band  also  plays  persistently 
to  ward  off  evil  spirits  and  continual  lamentation  is 
kept  up,  sometimes  by  persons  hired  for  the  purpose. 
The  coffin,  coloured  black  and  ornamented  with  silver 
paper  trimmings,  is  then  placed  upon  a bier  in  the 
principal  room  of  the  house  and  is  Avatched  by  the 
relatives  for  one  or  tAvo  days  and  nights  AAuth  inter- 
jnittent  accompaniment  of  music  and  holy  recitation  for 
the  pacification  of  the  ghost  of  the  departed.  During 
this  time  the  relations  of  the  deceased  are  ‘ at  home  ’ to 
their  friends  and  receive  their  condolences  in  return 
for  light  refreshments.  The  watching  ended,  the  body 
is  usually  carried  to  the  temple  where  it  is  either 
cremated  immediately  or  deposited  until  sufficient  funds 
haA^e  been  collected,  and  preparations  made,  for  a 
cremation  suitable  to  the  position  of  the  deceased. 
Sometimes,  hoAA^ever,  the  corpse  is  kept  in  the  dAA^elling 


PUNISH  MKX  r P.Y  WHIIMMXG. 


FUXKKAL  PYRE  OF  A ROYAL  PRINCE,  WITH  CARS  BRINGING  BODIES  FOR  CREMATION. 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


155 


lioiise  for  a period  wliicli  may  extend  to  many  montlis. 
When  the  coffin  is  removed  from  the  house  precautions 
are  taken  to  confuse  the  ghost  of  the  departed  as  to  the 
direction  taken.  It  is  carried  out  through  a hole  made 
in  the  wall  instead  of  through  the  usual  exit,  the  hearers 
then  march  round  the  house  several  times  before  setting 
off  for  the  temple  and  finally  carry  the  body  three  times 
round  the  funeral  pyre  before  depositing  it  to  be  burnt. 
Thus  the  ghost,  after  its  body  has  been  destroyed, 
cannot  find  its  way  back  to  haunt  its  home  but  must  go 
straightway  to  the  place  where  it  will  await  rebirth 
either  in  heaven,  hell,  or  elsewhere,  according  to  the 
stock  of  merit  acquired  during  life.  It  is  the  desire  of 
every  Siamese  to  secure  for  himself  as  imposing  a 
cremation  as  possible  and  his  sorrowing  relations 
usually  see  that  he  gets  it.  In  Bangkok  there  is  a 
cremation  season,  falling  about  April  or  May,  when  an 
enormous  amount  of  money  is  always  spent  upon  the 
obsequies  of  those  who  have  died  during  the  past  year. 
At  this  time  the  relations  of  a departed  worthy,  having 
invited  all  their  acquaintances  to  the  spot  where  the 
cremation  is  to  be  held,  bring  out  the  body  and  with 
the  observance  of  carefully  regulated  ceremony  place 
it  upon  a funeral  pyre,  the  height  and  magnificence  of 
which  vary  with  the  opulence  of  the  family.  Feasting, 
music  and  theatrical  performances  contiime  for  two 
days  in  temporary  buildings  erected  for  the  purpose 
near  the  pyre,  and  on  the  second  day  the  pyre  is  lighted, 
the  relations  and  friends  assisting  the  conflagration 
with  burning  tapers  and  scented  comlmstilDles.  Lotteries 
are  held  for  which  the  tickets  are  free  and  the  prizes 
numerons,  money  is  scattered  amongst  the  crowd  of 
poor  who  attend,  and  at  night  a display  of  fireAvorks  is 
giA^en.  Thronghont  the  proceedings  choirs  of  monks 
intone  homilies  and  it  is  a point  of  honour  to  entertain 
Avith  food  and  presents  as  large  a choir  as  possi1)le. 


156 


SIAM 


The  expenditure  of  money  is,  in  fact,  lavish  to  a degree, 
and  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  whole  of  a man’s 
estate  is  dissipated  by  his  heirs  in  their  endeavours  to 
gratify  his  spirit  with  a sumptuous  burning.  The 
cremations  of  deceased  members  of  the  Royal  family 
are  events  of  the  greatest  importance,  and  are  held  at 
intervals  of  a few  years,  when  all  those  of  the  royal 
blood  who  have  died  since  the  last  ceremony  are 
cremated  in  succession  upon  a pyre  of  great  mag- 
nificence. Such  a ceremony  partakes  of  the  nature  of 
a public  festival  and  lasts  sometimes  for  a month, 
during  the  whole  of  which  time  thousands  of  people 
are  fed  daily  and  entertained  with  all  manner  of 
diversions  at  the  Royal  expense.  In  these  cases  the 
bodies  of  the  deceased  are  not  laid  in  coffins  but  are 
placed  in  a sitting  position  in  large  urns  of  copper 
within  a shell  of  gold.  Each  stage  of  the  cremation, 
the  bringing  of  the  body  in  procession  to  the  spot 
where  it  is  to  be  burnt,  the  placing  of  it  upon  the  pyre, 
the  lighting  of  the  fire  and  the  actual  burning  and 
finally  the  collection  of  the  bones  and  ashes,  is  the  affair 
of  a separate  day.  The  King  takes  the  most  prominent 
part  in  the  whole  of  the  proceedings,  lighting  the 
funeral  pyre  with  his  mvn  hand  with  sacred  fire  from 
one  of  the  Royal  temjDles.  The  whole  Court,  clad  in 
mourning,  is  present  at  each  function.  The  bones 
which  are  collected  after  cremation  are  preserved  in 
small  golden  urns  in  the  Palace  and  on  certain  periodical 
occasions  are  produced  and  made  the  object  of  reverent 
ceremonies.  The  ashes  of  the  common  people  are 
likewise  collected  after  cremation  by  tlieir  relations  and 
are  ]3reseiwed  with  much  care  in  little  urns,  one  or  more 
of  which  may  be  seen  in  almost  every  house.  Persons 
who  die  of  cholera  or  other  rapid  and  violent  disease  are 
buried  for  a time  and  afterwards  exhumed  and  burnt. 
Formerly  it  Avas  usual  to  expose  the  bodies  of  paupers 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


157 


and  criminals  at  the  public  crematorium  where  they 
were  devoured  by  vultures  and  pariah  dogs.  This 
custom,  which  provided  one  of  the  stock  sights  for 
visitors  to  Bangkok,  has  been  done  away  with  and  all 
such  bodies  are  now  cremated.  The  public  crematorium 
is  situated  just  without  the  city  wall,  the  gateway  in 
which  giving  access  thereto  is  known  as  Pratu  Phi  or 
‘ The  Gate  of  Ghosts.’ 

The  Lao  are  so  nearly  related  to  the  Siamese  and  so 
closely  resemble  them  in  appearance  and  customs 
that  they  are  now  included  in  most  government  and 
other  statistics  with  the  Siamese  themselves  and  it 
seems  probable  that  with  the  linking  up  by  railways 
of  the  different  parts  of  the  country  and  with  the 
natural  spread  of  Siamese  influences,  the  two  races 
will  in  a short  time  become  completely  merged.  This 
is  the  more  likely  as  the  people  resent  being  called 
Lao,  a word  which,  as  applied  to  them  by  neighbouring 
races,  has  acquired  a contemptuous  significance,  and 
they  often  insist  upon  their  right  to  be  included  with 
the  Siamese  as  Thai. 

The  Lao  of  Siam  are  divided  into  two  great  clans, 
whose  chief  distinguishing  mark  is  the  presence  or 
absence  of  tattooing  on  the  thighs  and  lower  parts 
of  the  body.  The  tattooed  Laos  called  Lao  Pung  Dam, 
or  black-bellied  Lao,  occupy  the  whole  of  Xorthern  Siam 
and  the  head  waters  of  the  Menam  River,  those  who 
are  not  tattooed,  Lao  Pung  Khao  or  white-bellied  Laos, 
inhabiting  the  valleys  of  the  Lower  Mehkong  and  its 
tributaries,  the  Korat  Plateau  and  all  Eastern  Siam 
and  extending  far  into  French  Indo-China.  The 
tattooing  in  question  consists  of  a series  of  pictures 
of  very  conventional  animals  and  mythical  monsters, 
covering  the  body  from  just  above  the  ankles,  or  more 
usually  from  the  knees,  up  to  the  waist.  Each  animal 


158 


SIAM 


is  surrounded  by  a broad  line  of  cabalistic  writing  and 
any  spaces  between  the  figures  are  filled  in  with  fanciful 
tracery.  At  the  waist  the  pattern  is  finished  off  with 
a string  of  charm  words.  The  process  of  tattooing  is 
laborious  and  painful  but,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
Burmese,  it  is  considered  by  the  tattooed  Lao  as  an  in- 
dispensable ornament  to  every  grown  man.  The  result 
gives  a man  the  appearance  of  being  clothed  in  dark  blue 
tights.  The  colouring  matter  used  is  carbon  obtained 
from  the  residue  of  burning  coconut  oil.  Vermilion  is 
also  used  for  tattooiug  magic  squares  and  other  charms 
which  are  often  worn  on  the  upper  part  of  the  body. 

Both  branches  of  the  Lao  proceeded  originally  from 
the  ancient  Lao-Tai  people  of  south-western  China, 
but  the  Mehkong  Lao  have  been  much  longer  in  their 
present  seats  than  ‘ those  of  the  headwaters  of  the 
Menam.  The  latter,  who  have  fairly  close  affinity 
with  the  Shans  of  Burma,  represent  the  tribes  from 
which  the  Siamese  race  is  largely  derived.  Formerly 
the  Lao  country  was  split  up  into  a number  of  small 
states  which,  though  feudatory  to  Siam  (and  sometimes 
for  short  intervals  to  Ivambodia  and  Burma),  were 
each  ruled  by  a chief  wJiose  office  was  hereditary  and 
whose  Court  closely  resembled  in  miniature  that  of 
the  kings  of  Further  India.  Indeed  the  epithet 
miniature  did  not  always  apply,  for  at  one  time  or 
another  some  of  them,  more  especially  Wieng  Chan 
on  the  Mehkong  and  Chieng  Mai  on  the  Meping, 
were  independent  kingdoms,  almost,  if  not  quite  on 
a par  with  their  most  powerful  neighbours.  At  present 
the  partial  or  total  indejjendence  of  the  Lao  States  has 
practically  disappeared  so  far  as  Siam  is  concerned. 
The  last  Chief  of  Wieng  Chan  died  a prisoner  in 
Bangkok  eighty  years  ago  ; since  then  Luang  Prabang, 
also  on  the  Mehkong,  has  become  French  territory  and 


mm 


^lAKKET  SCENE,  CHIENGMAI,  X.  SIAAE 


LAO  WOMEN  AT  WORK  IN  A GARDEN. 


A MUX  GIKI, 


ir/io/o  : All/on io. 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAJM 


159 


thoHgli  in  the  north  the  Chiefs  of  Chieng  Mai,  Nan, 
Pre  and  Lakhon  Lampang,  still  hold  their  titles,  the}- 
have  little  or  no  anthority,  but  exist  as  pensioners  of 
Siam,  their  States  having  long  been  welded  together 
into  the  Siamese  Provincial  Division  of  Payap,  ad- 
ministered by  a Siamese  High  Commissioner  with  a 
large  staff  of  civil  servants. 

Tho  Lao  man  is  so  like  his  Siamese  cousin  that,  but 
for  his  slightly  heavier  build  and  perhaps  rather 
lighter  complexion,  it  is  almost  impossible  at  first 
sight  to  tell  them  apart.  When  he  speaks  however 
he  reveals  his  race,  for  Lao,  though  to  a great  extent 
the  parent  language  of  Siamese,  differs  considerably 
from  the  latter  in  pronunciation  and  in  the  general 
absence  of  words  of  Khmer  origin.  Nowadays  the 
Lao  masculine  dress  is  identical  with  the  Siamese 
except  that  the  shaving  of  the  sides  and  back  of  the 
head  leaving  a mere  tuft  on  the  top,  now  abandoned 
by  almost  all  the  Siamese,  is  still  practised  by  the  Lao. 
At  the  foot  of  the  hills  to  the  west  of  Ratbnri  there 
is  found  a community  of  Lao  known  locally  as  Lao 
Song  Dam  or  ‘ Lao  Clothed  in  Black.’  These  people 
resemble  the  Northern  Lao  in  most  of  their  customs 
but  the  men  wear  tight  fitting  short  black  drawers, 
black  coat  with  silver  buttons  and  black  straw  hats, 
while  the  women  wear  a l)lack  knee-long  skirt  relieved 
with  broad  blue  lines,  black  jackets  and  black  head 
cloths.  On  special  occasions  both  sexes  wear  a long  black 
coat  tastefully  embroidered  in  colours,  chiefly  red.  They 
claim  to  have  come  from  the  North  al^out  .100  years  ago. 

The  Lao  women  wear  a striped  skirt  falling  from 
waist  to  ankle,  a scarf  thrown  across  the  breast  and 
over  one  shoulder,  and  sometimes  a close  fitting  jacket. 
Often,  however,  they  go  bare  from  the  waist  upward. 
Their  hair  is  worn  long,  is  fastened  in  a knot  at  the 
top  of  the  head  and  is  frequently  adorned  with  flowers. 


160 


SIAM 


They  are  fairer  and  of  fuller  figure  than  the  Siamese 
women  and,  with  their  distinct  advantage  of  costume, 
have  a more  pleasing  and  more  feminine  aspect. 

The  Lao  of  the  Northern  and  Western  or  tatooed 
variety  seem  to  possess  most  of  the  good  qualities  of 
the  Siamese  and  few  of  the  bad,  for  while  they  are 
equally  polite,  hospitable,  and  obedient  to  authority, 
they  surpass  their  southern  cousins  in  honesty,  peace- 
fulness and  sobriety.  They  are  moreover  more  in- 
dustrious, and  perhaps  more  truly  religious  than  the 
Siamese.  These  remarks  do  not  however  apply  to 
the  eastern  or  non-tatooed  Lao  in  whom  the  standards 
of  morality  and  virtue  are  not  high.  The  position  of 
their  women  approaches  that  of  the  Burmese  in  its 
absolute  independence  and  in  fact  Burmese  influences, 
the  result  of  old-time  conquests  and  occupations  of 
the  Lao  States  by  Kings  of  Ava  and  Pegu,  are  visible 
in  many  of  the  customs  of  the  Lao  as  well  as  in  their 
style  of  architecture  and  their  religious  rites  and 
observances.  The  written  character  of  the  Lao  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  the  Shans  and  is  derived  from 
the  ancient  Mon  rather  than  from  the  Khmer.  The 
differences  between  the  Lao  and  Shan  languages  are 
hardly  more  than  dialectical  and  in  fact,  in  the  Burmese 
Shan  State  of  Keng  Tung  just  north  of  the  Siamese 
frontier,  the  Lao  shades  off  into  Shan  by  almost  im- 
perceptible degrees.  The  difference  between  Lao  and 
Siamese  is  more  marked,  by  reason  of  the  great  influence 
of  the  Khmer  language  upon  Siamese,  whereby  in- 
numerable Kambodian  words  and  also  wide  differences 
in  pronunciation  have  been  introduced. 

Opinion  is  divided  as  to  the  source  from  which  the 
Lao  derived  their  religion.  At  one  time  it  was  taken 
for  granted  that  Buddhism  had  reached  them  from 
the  south  as  a result  of  the  Cingalese  Mission  to 
Further  India  of  the  fifth  century  a.d.  but  it  is  difficult 


LAOS  OF  LAPLE  : NORTHERN  SIAM. 


LAO  WOMEN  OF  UBON  DISTRICT. 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


161 


to  maintain  that  explanation  in  the  face  of  evidence 
which  has  more  recently  come  to  light,  showing  that 
the  Lao  were  Buddhists  long  before  that  time,  and  it 
is  noAY  generally  supposed  that  the  Lao-Tai  family  first 
received  their  religion  from  Northern  India  in  the  form 
of  Northern  Buddhism,  brought  it  doAAui  Avitli  them 
AAdien  they  penetrated  Further  India  and,  coming  in 
contact  Avith  Southern  Buddhism  as  imported  from 
Ceylon,  adopted  many  of  its  tenets  in  preference  to 
those  of  the  A’-ersioii  they  already  kneAV. 

The  modern  Lao  are  all  Buddhists  but  their  faith 
is  more  strongl}^  tinctured  Avith  Animism  than  is  that 
of  the  Siamese.  Traces  of  the  ancient  Naga  or  Serpent- 
Avorship  and  of  the  spirit-AA-orship  common  to  both 
peoples  are  more  emphatic  among  the  Lao,  and  the 
propitiation  of  the  minor  deities  of  the  house,  the  field 
and  the  fells  as  Avell  as  of  the  old  Brahman  gods, 
mascpierading  in  more  or  less  effective  disguise,  is 
a consideration  of  much  more  importance  Avith  them. 
In  the  matter  of  charms  and  spells  they  are  more 
credulous  than  the  Siamese,  and  this  trait  is  much 
pandered  to  by  the  monks  many  of  Avhom  pose  as 
Avitch-doctors,  prophets  and  charm-mongers,  thereby 
accpiiring  great  local  influence  AAdiicli  is  not  alAAuys 
used  in  the  interests  either  of  the  Buddhist  religion 
or  of  the  temporal  GoA^ermnent. 

In  the  arts  the  Lao  are  aa-cII  advanced  according  to 
tlie  standards  of  Further  India.  In  silver-AAnrk,  carving, 
embroidery,  painting  and  music,  they  fully  equal  the 
Siamese.  The  favourite  instminent  is  the  Ken,  a reed 
instrument  similar  to  that  used  by  the  Muhso  and  other 
northern  tribes  but  of  a more  highly  deAnloped  type. 
The  Ken  is  made  of  all  sizes,  from  the  small  pocket 
affair  AAdiich  almost  every  man  plays  to  the  large  instru- 
ment of  fourteen  or  more  reeds,  of  sonorous  tone  and 
Avide  compass,  AAdiich  is  used  by  professionals.  The  Ken 
L 


162 


SIAM 


has  long  ago  made  its  way  to  the  south  and  is  very  much 
admired  by  the  Siamese.  A well-trained  band  of  fifteen 
performers  is  maintained  in  Bangkok  by  one  of  the 
Royal  Princes  who,  being  himself  an  accomplished 
musician,  has  provided  it  with  an  extensive  repertoire, 
the  orchestra  for  which  he  has  arranged  himself.  The 
band  plays  Scottish  airs  and  European  dance-music 
most  effectively^ 

Shan. — A few  Shan,  whom  the  Siamese  call  Ngiow 
and  sometimes  Thai-Yai,  or  great  Thai,  have  found  their 
way  from  the  Burmese  Shan  States  into  the  north  of 
Siam  and  a colony  of  these  same  people  has  long  been 
established  at  the  Ruby  mines  of  Chantaburi  in  the 
south-east  corner  of  the  kingdom.  Differing  in  no 
respect  from  their  countrymen  who  have  so  often  been 
described  in  books  on  Burma,  the  few  Shan  settlers  in 
Siam  call  for  no  special  remark  except  that  to  them  is 
due  the  rapid  northward  extension  of  the  railway  from 
Bangkok.  An  altogether  insignificant  number  of  them 
raised  the  standard  of  revolt  in  the  year  1901  and 
awakened  the  government  to  the  difficulty  of  moving 
troops  to  the  north  and  taught  them  by  a somewhat 
startling  experience  that  until  means  of  rapid  and 
reliable  transport  should  be  available,  the  hold  of  Siam 
over  the  Lao  country  must  be  precarious  and  might  give 
way  altogether  if  put  to  sudden  and  unexpected  test. 
Hence  the  Northern  State  Railway  which  at  that  time 
had  reached  a point  some  sixty  miles  from  Bangkok  was 
j:)ushed  on  until  to-day  it  is  well  into  Northern  Siam. 

The  Lu  closely  resemble  the  Eastern  Lao.  Their 
advent  into  the  north  of  Siam  is  comparatively  recent 
and  was  the  result  of  disturbances  in  the  Sipsong  Panna, 
the  headquarters  of  their  tribe.  They  have  spread 
themselves  over  most  of  the  Nan  district  of  Northern 
Siam  and  are  also  found  in  large  numbers  in  the  British 
Shan  state  of  Keng  Tung.  They  are,  if  anything. 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


163 


rather  taller  and  -better  built  than  the  Lao.  Those  who 
inhabit  Siam  shave  the  head  at  the  sides  and  back 
leaving  a tnft  of  short  hair  at  the  top  after  the  old 
Siamese,  and  present  Lao  method.  They  are  Buddhists 
and  the  Valley  of  the  Nam  Ngan,  their  principal  strong- 
hold in  Siam,  contains  many  monasteries.  Even  more 
than  the  Lao  they  mingle  spirit  and  demon  worship 
with  their  Buddhism  Avith,  as  nsnal,  the  entire  con- 
currence and  active  assistance  of  the  monks.  The  men, 
who  are  invariably  tatooed  in  the  Lao  manner  from  the 
AA^aist  to  the  ankles,  dress  in  the  Avidest  of  baggy  trousers 
and  shortest  of  donble-breasted  coats,  made  of  dark  bine 
cotton  cloth  embroidered  AAnth  small  pieces  of  scarlet 
flannel,  Avith  bead-like  seeds  and  sometimes  Avith  roAvs 
of  mother-of-pearl  shirt  buttons.  They  cover  their  head 
with  a great  AAdiite  or  red  turban,  and  the  wide  Shan 
straw  hat  Avhich  is  Avorn  on  the  top  of  the  turban  and 
hanging  doAAm  in  three  flaps  is  a good  deal  affected. 
They  carry  long  dahs  or  sAA^ords,  daggers,  and  some- 
times a flint-lock  gnn,  Avith  the  inevitable  embroidered 
shonlder-bag  or  liaA^ersac,  containing  pipe,  tobacco,  betel 
and  other  odds  and  ends.  Their  general  appearance  is 
strongly  reminiscent  of  the  NgioAv  Shan.  The  Ln 
AATimen  aaAio  are  alAA^ays  Imxom  and  sometimes  pretty, 
keep  their  hair  long  and  do  it  up  on  the  top  of  the  head. 
They  Avear  a skirt  or  petticoat  much  like  that  of  their 
Lao  sisters  and  coA^er  the  upper  part  of  the  body  AAnth  a 
long-sleeved  jacket,  folded  cross-Avise  oA^er  the  bosom 
and  deeply  embroidered  round  the  edges.  The  pretty 
carelessness  or  perhaps  coquetry  Avhich  causes  the  Lao 
ladies  to  neglect  the  too  close  veiling  of  their  charms  is 
not  a trait  of  the  Ln.  The  Ln  of  both  sexes  folloAv  the 
NgioAv  Shan  practice  of  piercing  the  lobe  of  the  ear  and 
distending  the  hole  so  made  until  it  is  capable  of 
accommodating  a roll  of  paper,  a disc  of  AA^ood  or  otfier 
object  sometimes  as  mncb  as  tAA^o  inches  in  diameter. 


164 


SIAM 


With  the  very  well-to-do  this  ear-plug  is  sometimes 
formed  of  a thin  strip  of  gold  rolled  up  cylindrically 
and  as  much  as  four  ounces  of  the  metal  is  sometimes 
carried  in  each  ear. 

The  Sam  Sams  are  a community  of  half-breed  Siamese 
who  inhabit  the  western  coast  districts  of  Southern  Siam, 
In  many  respects  they  resemble  the  Malays  and  would 
in  fact  be  practically  identical  with  them  but  for  their 
repudiation  of  Islam.  Prior  to  their  exploration  by 
Messrs  Annandale  and  Skeat  in  the  beginning  of  this 
century  the  Samsams  were  almost  entirely  unknown  to 
the  outer  world.  They  are  a small  and  unimportant 
community  and  tend  to  become  reabsorbed  amongst  the 
Siamese. 

The  IvARiENS. — The  30,000  or  so  Kariens  who  inhabit 
tlie  western  and  south-western  mountain  ranges  of  Siam 
are,  as  has  already  been  intimated,  the  overflow  of  the 
Karen  jieojde  of  Burma,  of  which  country  they  form 
a fifteenth  part  of  the  entire  population.  The  various 
clans,  their  appearance,  costume,  customs  and  religion 
have  been  so  fully  set  forth  by  Sir  George  Scott  and 
other  writers  on  Burma  as  to  render  further  description 
of  them  almost  superfluous.  The  Kariens  of  Siam  are 
chiefly  of  the  Pwo  and  Bgai  sects,  the  Sgaw  being 
practically  unrepresented.  They  are  of  a shy  and  retiring 
disposition  and  rarely  leave  their  oAvn  mountains  though 
a feAV  occasionally  visit  the  market  tOAAms  in  their  neigh- 
l)Ourhood  and  have  been  knoAvn  to  seek  AA^ork  in  the 
tin  mines  AA^est  of  Ratburi.  The  men  are  usually 
thin  and  spare  of  build  but  of  an  extreme  Aviriness. 
Under  all  or  any  conditions  they  are  entirely  at  home 
in  the  jungle  and  as  trackers  and  hunters  of  big  game 
are  far  in  adAmnce  of  all  other  inhabitants  of  Siam. 
They  wear  cotton  trousers  or  a striped  cotton  skirt 
of  tlie  scantiest  length,  and  loose  jackets  or  sometimes 
gabardines,  and  they  all  AA^ear  their  long  hair  tAAusted 


KARIKXS. 


1 


THE  RACES  OF  SIAM 


165 


up  ill  a lieadclotli,  the  end  of  which  is  soiiietiiiies  made 
to  protrude  like  a horn  over  the  forehead.  They  are 
seldom  seen  without  arms  consisting  of  a dali,  a sjiear 
or  sometimes  a rusty  cheek-gnu.  The  women  are  fair 
and  might  he  of  pleasing  appearance  were  it  not  for 
the  excessive  dirtiness  of  themselves  and  everything 
about  them.  Their  usual  covering  is  a sort  of  gabardine, 
a garment  easily  contrived  from  a single  piece  of  cloth 
with  a slit  in  the  middle  throngh  which  the  head  is 
passed  and  with  the  sides  sewn  together.  Sometimes  this 
constitutes  the  whole  costnme,  at  others  it  is  short 
hnd  falls  over  a skirt  reaching  to  the  knee  and  some- 
times it  is  altogether  absent,  being  replaced  by  a 
covering  for  the  upper  part  of  the  body  made  of  a 
simple  strip  of  cloth  thrown  round  the  neck,  spread 
out  over  the  bosom  and  fastened  into  a cloth  lielt 
at  the  waist.  The  black  bands  of  lacquered  cane 
worn  lielow  the  knee  by  so  many  hill  people  of  Further 
India  are  never  absent  from  the  lindis  of  the  Karieii 
women.  Their  costnme  is  decorated  with  embroidery 
of  pearly  seeds,  strings  of  which  are  also  worn  round 
the  neck  and  ivaist,  silver  rings  sometimes  ornament 
the  ears  and  after  marriage  a blue  clotli  is  worn  on 
the  head. 

The  Kariens  of  Siam  are  juirely  spirit  worshippers, 
being  still  be^^ond  the  reach  of  the  Christian  Missionaries 
who  have  converted  the  greater  |)art  of  their  fellow 
tril^esmen  in  Burma.  Their  ritual  takes  tlie  usual 
form  of  sacrifice  witli  its  attendant  feasting  and  heavy 
drinking  of  strong  rice  spirit.  They  are  experts  in  the 
art  of  hill  cnltwation  and  obtain  good  crops  of  rice  and 
maize  from  their  extensive  clearings.  Their  lionses 
are  long  barrack-like  affairs  built  principally  of  liamboo 
and  thatched  with  grass.  The  children  have  their  ears 
pierced  while  very  young  and  are  usually  promised 
in  marriage  before  the  age  of  six.  Divorce  is  a matter 


166 


SIAM 


of  mutual  consent  and  the  custom  of  cutting  off  the  ears 
of  women  taken  in  adultery  renders  that  offence  of  rare 
occurrence.  A death  is  announced  by  salvos  of  firearms 
and  much  beating  of  gongs.  Funerals  are  accompanied 
by  dancing,  feasting  and  drinking.  The  deceased  is 
buried  in  a coffin  with  his  weapons,  tools,  etc.,  beside 
him.  A temporary  hut  erected  over  the  grave  is  stored 
with  food  and  implements  indicative  of  the  favourite 
pursuits  of  the  deceased.  In  their  funeral  customs 
and  at  many  other  points  the  Kariens  bear  a striking 
resemblance  to  the  Kachins  of  the  north  and  north-east 
of  Burma,  a fact  which  may  possibly  be  of  some  future 
assistance  in  throwing  light  upon  their  origin.  The 
art  of  divination  by  means  of  an  inspection  of  the 
bones  of  slaughtered  fowls  is  much  practised  among 
them  and  in  fact  no  Karien  will  marry,  build  a house, 
start  upon  a journey,  plant  his  crops  or  take  any 
decisive  step  in  life  without  first  seeking  the  approval 
of  the  spirits  as  indicated  by  the  bones.  Such  divination 
is  conducted  by  experts  and  the  exact  rules  by  which 
the  auguries  are  interpreted  have  not  been  revealed. 
Iron-smelting  and  metal-work  is  carried  on  to  some 
extent,  and  a peculiar  kind  of  metal  gong,  cast  in  the 
shape  of  a kettle  drum  and  known  as  the  ‘Frog  Gong’ 
is  made  by  them  and  is  much  ]Di‘i^ed  not  only  by 
themselves  but  by  the  other  races  with  whom  they 
are  in  contact. 


PART  III 

HISTORY 

Until  recently  the  history  of  Siam  prior  to  the  fourteenth 
century  a.d.  was  practically  unknown,  the  only  avail- 
able literature  relating  thereto  being  the  heterogeneous 


HISTORY 


167 


collection  of  disjointed  stories  and  fragments  known  as 
the  Pongsawadmi  Muang  Nua  or  the  Annals  of  the  North 
Country,  compiled  at  different  periods  from  snch  of  the 
official  records  of  various  cities  and  kingdoms  as  escaped 
the  destruction  which  at  intervals  overtook  the  com- 
munities to  which  they  referred.  These  annals  were 
moreover  rare  and  difficult  of  access  and  because  of  the 
numerous  supernatural  happenings  recorded  therein 
were,  even  when  found,  considered  altogether  nnworthy 
of  credence.  Of  late,  however,  the  valuable  researches 
of  a small  group  of  enthusiasts,  deciphering  the  annals 
of  neighbouring  states,  and  the  lithographic  inscriptions 
found  in  various  parts  of  the  country  and  delving 
amongst  the  chronicles  of  the  Emperors  of  China,  have 
brought  to  light  a multitude  of  facts  bearing  upon 
ancient  Siam,  and  the  labours  of  H.R.H.  Prince  Damrong, 
the  Rev.  Pm’e  Schmitt,  Colonel  Gerini,  Frankfurter, 
Fournereau  and  others  have  shown  that  the  annals  of 
the  North  Country  though  certainly  rich  in  fantastic 
nonsense,  contain  after  all  a great  deal  of  truth  as  well. 

These  labours  reveal  the  condition  of  Siam  in  earliest 
times  as  a land  inhabited  by  people  of  the  Mdn-Ivhmer 
family  amongst  whom  settled  in  remote  times  parties  of 
their  more  civilised  cousins  from  Kambodia,  brinoine: 
with  them  the  religion  and  the  customs  acquired  by 
contact  with  colonists  from  the  south  east  coast  of  India 
and  possil)ly  with  the  Laos  of  the  very  ancient  Kingdom 
of  Wieng  Chan  in  the  Mcffikong  valley.  Such  settle- 
ments grew  from  mere  villages  into  cities,  sometimes 
of  importance,  at  the  same  time  putting  out  offshoots  in 
all  directions  and  these  in  time  l3ecame  the  capitals  of 
small  states  with  undefined  borders  the  chiefs  of  which, 
constantly  seeking  to  extend  their  dominions,  made 
fierce  war  on  each  other  and  against  the  Lao-Tai  tribes 
which  they  found  upon  their  flanks,  reducing  or  being 
reduced  by  their  neighbours,  while  every  now  and  then 


168 


SIAM 


a more  than  nsnally  able  ruler  arose  and  dominated  the 
rest,  welded  his  conquests  into  a more  or  less  enduring 
kingdom  and  sometimes  repudiated  the  vague  over- 
lordship claimed  by  the  ancient  Empire  of  Ivambodia 
over  the  whole  congeries.  To  these  researches  is  also 
due  what  is  known  concerning  the  incursions  into  Siam 
of  the  Lao  branch  of  the  Lao-Tai  group,  the  gradual 
fusion  of  this  family  with  the  Mon-Khmer,  and  the  con- 
sequent evolution  of  the  Thai  race  and  of  the  united 
Siamese  kingdom. 

Of  the  period  sul^sequent  to  the  fourteenth  century 
A.D.  contemporary  records  are  more  easily  available. 
The  Ponfjsawadan  Ki-mig  Kao  or  Annals  of  Ayuthia 
contain  a complete  and  fairly  accurate  record,  compiled 
in  successive  reigns,  of  the  history  of  the  country  from 
1349  to  1765  A.D.  Also  the  seventeenth  century  saw 
the  production  of  many  books  by  Eurox^ean  missionaries 
and  others  of  which  Siam  was  wholl}^  or  in  part  the 
theme  and  some  of  these  contain  not  only  accurate 
descrix^tions  of  the  momentary  condition  of  the  country 
but  also  many  historical  references  of  value  and  imx^ort- 
ance.  Siam  was  not  x^i’olific  in  literature  of  any  kind 
during  the  eighteenth  century,  a x^^i’iod  of  continual 
war  and  frequent  revolutions,  but  the  reconsolidation  of 
the  kingdom  and  the  dawn  of  the  Bangkok  era  induced 
a x^‘T^i4ial  renaissance  of  the  arts  and  also  a flow  of 
literature  which,  increasing  steadily  in  volume  down  to 
tlie  end  of  the  nineteenth  centniy,  sux:)X^liDS  very  comp)lete 
information  on  all  x^oints  of  recent  history. 

Tlie  ancient  Mon-Khmer  tribesmen  were  no  doubt 
very  numerous  and  were  disx:>ersed  over  all  the  land  of 
Siam  which  at  that  time  existed  above  sea  level.  The 
oldest  settlement  of  these  of  which  anything  definite  is 
known  was  Haribnnja,  or  Sukhodaya,  situated  on  what 
is  now  the  Me  Yom  river  at  a sxiot  aliout  200  miles 
north  of  Bangkok  and  which,  about  300  b.c.,  was 


HISTORY 


1G9 


apparently  a fair-sized  village  community,  tlie  members 
of  which  belonged  to  a Brahman  sect.  At  first  putting 
for\vard  no  pretensions  to  the  status  of  a kingdom,  the 
settlement  appears  to  have  increased  somewhat  rapidly 
in  importance,  for  about  two  centuries  later  the  Chief 
(Sri  Dhammaraja)  made  himself  king  of  the  district, 
built  the  new  capital  of  Sawankalok  (also  called 
Sajanalaya),  the  construction  of  which  occupied  seven 
years,  and  appointed  one  of  his  sons,  Uloka  Kumara, 
viceroy  of  Haribunja  or  Sukhoda}^,  which  itself  soon 
grew  into  a fortified  city.  Thereafter  the  two  towns 
served  alternately  as  the  capital  of  a country  which 
under  the  name  of  Sri  Sajanalaya  Snkhodaya  and  later 
the  kingdom  of  Sukhothai-Sawankalok  grew  by  slow 
degrees  to  great  wealth  and  strength.  Its  monarchs 
claiming  Kshatriya  descent  surrounded  themselves  with 
the  ancient  Brahman  ceremonial  of  India,  most  of  which 
is  observed  without  very  much  change  at  the  court  of 
Siam  at  the  present  day,  and  their  time  was  largely 
occupied  with,  the  waging  of  war  upon  the  kingdoms  of 
neighbouring  states  founded  in  the  same  manner,  upon 
the  same  principles  but  at  somewhat  later  dates  than 
their  own. 

Sukhothai  (Sukho,  liappiness,  Thai,  free),  a corrup- 
tion of  Sukhodaya,  ‘ the  Dawn  of  Happiness,’  suggests 
a ])ossible  origin  of  the  term  ‘ Thai  ’ ap])lied  to  the 
Siamese  race  and  a totally  different  word  from  ‘ Tai,’ 
the  race  name  of  the  great  north  branch  of  the  Lao-Tai 
family. 

In  course  of  time  the  kingdom  of  Sukliothai- 
Sawankalok  reduced  all  its  neighbours  to  a condition  of 
vassalage  and  l)ecame  generally  recognised  as  the 
capital  of  the  whole  country.  The  vague  and  usually 
inoperative  suzerainty  of  Kambodia  continued  for  many 
centuries  but  with  little  or  no  effect  upon  the  destinies 
of  its  nominal  dependency  which  was  left  to  manage 


170 


SIAM 


itself  and  its  group  of  subordinates  as  seemed  to  it  best. 
The  principal  of  those  lesser  states,  which  for  a long 
period  alternately  admitted  and  denounced  the  suzerainty 
of  Sukhothai-Sawankalok  was  Sri  Wijaya,  also  called 
Samarattha  and  later  Suphan,  the  first  capital  of 
which  was  built,  probably  about  the  year  150  a.d.,  on  a 
site  at  that  time  close  to  the  sea  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf 
of  Siam,  though  it  is  now  twenty-five  miles  inland. 
As  Sri  Wijaya  the  state  flourished  for  some  800  years, 
successive  kings  adding  to  the  buildings  and  fortifica- 
tions of  the  capital  and  embellishing  the  magnificent 
pagoda,  the  graceful  spire  of  which,  often  restored  and 
more  than  once  practically  rebuilt  during  successive 
ages,  still  dominates. the  district  now  known  as  Nakhon 
Chai  Si  (Nagara  Jaya  Sri)  for  miles  round.  About  the 
tenth  century  A.D.,  Phra  Phan  the  then  reigning 
monarch,  a person  whose  varied  and  stirring  career 
included,  according  to  the  legends,  many  years  of  exile, 
the  slaying  of  his  own  father  and  the  conduct  of  more 
than  the  usual  number  of  military  campaigns,  deserted 
the  capital  as  the  sequel  of  an  unfortunate  war  with 
the  vassal  state  of  Ratburi,  in  which  the  Suzerain 
Power  had  been  temporarily  worsted,  and  retiring 
northward,  founded  a new  city  which  he  called 
Suwarnabhumi,  close  to  the  site  of  the  modern  toim 
Suphan.  Some  250  years  later  the  descendants  of  Phra 
Phan  ruling  in  Suwarnabhumi  suffered  defeat  at  the 
hands  of  a Peguan  prince,  and  when  the  invader  was- 
afterwards  driven  away  with  the  assistance  of  the  king* 
of  the  neighbouring  state  of  Lopburi,  also  a nominal 
vassal  of  Sukhothai,  the  latter  as  the  price  of  his  help, 
annexed  Suwarnabhumi  to  his  own  kingdom. 

About  the  middle  of  the  5th  century  a.d.  an  individual 
to  whom  the  chronicles  give  the  sounding  title  of  King 
of  Taksila  Maha  Nakhon,  but  who  was  apparently  no 
more  than  a rebellious  Governor  of  the  Sukhothai- 


HISTORY 


171 


Sawankalok  province  of  Taksila,  founded  two  settle- 
ments on  the  banks  of  the  main  river  of  Siam,  one  of 
which  must  have  been  at  the  edge  of  the  sea  and  the 
other  about  thirty  miles  inland.  The  former  was  called 
Dwaravati,  or  later  Dwarapnri  after  the  mythical  sea- 
girt city  of  Krishna  and  the  latter  received  the  name  of 
Lawapnri,  Lawo  or,  as  it  is  now  called,  Lopbnri.  The 
two  settlements  grew  side  by  side,  both  claiming  to  be 
the  capitals  of  kingdoms  comprising  the  surrounding 
country  districts,  but  after  some  centuries  of  rivalry 
Dwarapnri  was  absorbed  by  Lopbnri  the  latter  becoming 
in  time  subject  to  spasmodic  control  by  Snkhothai  and 
also  to  occasional  beatings  from  the  armies  of  Kambodia, 
the  paramount  power  in  the  south. 

Yet  another  southern  State  was  the  kingdom  of  Ligor 
or  Yakhon  Sri  Dhammaraj,  situated  on  the  east  coast  of 
the  Siamo-Malay  Peninsula,  about  latitude  8°  25'  N. 
The  date  of  the  first  appearance  of  a consolidated 
kingdom  in  this  neighbourhood  is  uncertain  but  there 
is  evidence  that  travellers  from  both  India  and  China 
knew  of  a capital  city  on  the  north-east  coast  of  the 
Peninsula  at  a very  early  period,  while  the  Annals  of 
the  North  describe  Ligor  as  waging  a temporarily 
successful  war  against  Lopbnri  in  the  9th  century  a.d. 
In  very  early  times  the  Kings  of  Ligor  were  the  over- 
lords  of  the  entire  Siamo-Malay  Peninsula  and  though 
the  advent  of  the  Malays  and  the  establishment  of  the 
Malacca  Power  destroyed  their  rule  in  the  southern 
parts,  they  continued  until  comparatively  recently  (when 
the  sub-kingdom  became  a mere  province  of  Siam),  to 
be  the  acknowledged  masters  of  all  the  central  and 
northern  districts.  Ligor  was  always  subject  to  much 
foreign  influence.  Indian  and  European  traders  made 
it  a centre  for  the  collection  of  merchandise  and  in  the 
wars  l)etween  Siam  and  Pegu,  its  situation  contiguous 
to  the  frontier  caused  it  to  be  frequently  occupied  })y 


172 


SIAM 


the  Peguan  forces.  The  cult  of  Brahmanism  flourished 
greatly  there  in  the  middle  ages  and  it  remains  at  the 
present  day  the  last  stronghold  of  popular  Brahmanism 
in  Siam. 

- But  it  was  not  only  against  their  Mon-Khmer  cousins 
that  the  several  states  in  Siam  found  occasion  for  the 
exercise  of  their  military  j)roclivities.  The  Lao  tribes 
inhabiting  the  mountain  districts  on  their  outskirts  had 
for  long  demanded  a certain  amount  of  attention,  and 
as  time  went  on,  and  these,  emboldened  by  increasing 
numbers,  took  to  avenging  past  oppression  by  raiding 
the  villages  in  the  plains,  it  began  to  be  evident  that 
these  erstwhile  contemptible  savages  were  growing  to 
the  proportions  of  a serious  enemy.  In  fact  as  early  as 
the  5th  century  a.d.  the  reduction  of  the  Lao  in  the 
north  had  become  almost  the  main  business  of  the 
kings  of  Sukhothai-Sawankalok.  Expeditions  against 
them  were  constant ; they  were  frecpiently  overthrown, 
and  large  numbers  were  from  time  to  time  carried 
ca]^tive  to  Sukhothai  or  Sawankalok,  but  the  intercourse 
which  was  thus  brought  about  served  only  to  strengthen 
them,  for  they  copied  and  adopted  the  Mon-Khmer 
customs  and  civilization  Avith  A\diich  they  thus  became 
acquainted,  and  turned  their  knoAAdedge  against  their 
instructors  Avith  pertinacity  and  an  ever  increasing 
measure  of  success. 

A Lao  capital  city  AA-as  founded  about  575  a.d.,  being 
built  in  imitation  of  the  I\lon-Khmer  capitals,  at  a spot 
al)out  250  miles  north  of  SaAAxmkalok,  and  to  this  AA^as 
given  the  name  llaril3unjaya,  an  early  name  of  Sukhothai, 
AAdiich  afterAAairds  became  corru])ted  to  Lamphun  Chai, 
then  to  Lam])liiin  or  Labong.  Here  the  principal 
ljuildings  of  Sukhotliai  AA^ere  reproduced  and  here  a 
succession  of  Lao  kings  reigned,  closely  obseiwing  the 
Brahman  rites  and  royal  ceremonies  in  A^ogue  at 
Sukhothai,  and  encouraging  both  Brahmanism  and 


HISTORY 


173 


Biiddliism  amongst  tlieir  people.  Other  Lao  states 
grew  into  prominence  in  the  neighhonrhood  of  Lamphnn, 
of  which  the  most  formidable  was  Chieng  Sen  some 
300  miles  north  of  Lamphnn,  and  Wieng  Chan  500 
miles  to  the  east  on  the  Mehkong,  and  here  also  the 
Royal  etiquette  followed  that  of  Kshatriya  Courts.  The 
time  came  when  the  Mon-Khmers  could  no  longer  keep 
the  Lao  in  check.  During  the  succeeding  centuries 
the  Lao  arms  were  carried  far  south  into  the  kingdoms 
of  Lophuri  and  Ligor,  alliances  lieDveen  Khmer  and 
Lao  kings  became  of  frequent  occurrence,  the  Royal 
families  intermarried,  and  Lao  settlements  were  formed 
in  various  parts  of  Southern  Siam. 

Despite  the  wars  with  the  soutiiern  states  and  with 
the  Lao  and  notwithstanding  occasional  trouble  A\dth 
Kambodia,  the  Sukhothai-SaAvankalok  kingdom  grcAV 
and  prospered  greatly  and  in  time  attained  to  a con- 
siderable degree  of  civilisation.  Not  AA^ar  alone  occupied 
the  attention  of  its  succeeding  kings.  The  Arts  AA^ere 
encouraged,  the  people  AA^ere  AA^ell  and  systematically 
goA^erned,  trade  AA^as  extensive  and  friendly  relations 
AA'ere  maintained  Avitli  China  and  other  distant  lands 
l^y  means  of  frequent  interchange  of  embassies.  Early 
in  the  7th  century  A.D.,  envoys  from  the  Emperor  of 
China  Ausited  Sukhothai  and  found  the  country  AA^ealthy 
and  poAATi'ful.  The  eiiA^oys  liave  left  records  of  tlieir 
Ausit  from  AAdiich  it  ap]Aears  that  the  peojile  AA^ere  chiefly 
engaged  in  the  cultiAvition  of  rice  and  other  cereals 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  and  that  in  their 
manners  and  customs  they  to  a great  extent  resembled 
the  present  inhabitants  of  Siam.  The  records  also 
describe  the  appearance  of  the  capital,  its  fortifications 
and  buildings  AAdiich  AA^ere  eAudently  executed  in  the 
style  of  Khmer  architecture  visible  to-day  in  the  ruins 
of  Angkor,  Pimai  and  other  places,  and  they  enlarge  upon 
the  royal  state  kept  by  the  king. 


174 


SIAM 


In  later  times,  with  the  further  growth  of  the  kingdom 
the  capital  must  have  become  a great  and  rich  city,  for 
here  were  gathered  together  the  spoils  and  the  tribute 
of  all  the  surrounding  countries  which  from  time  to 
time  were  brought  under  the  yoke.  Here  Peguans  from 
the  west,  Kambodians  from  the  east,  Yunnanese  and  Lao 
from  the  north,  Mon-Khmer  from  the  cities  of  the  south, 
and  not  a few  traders  from  India,  attracted  by  the 
wealth  of  the  metropolis  or  carried  thither  as  prisoners 
of  war,  must  have  rubbed  shoulders  with  the  native 
population  in  the  streets  and  market-places,  scattering 
and  prostrating  themselves  before  the  palanquin  or  the 
elephant  of  the  king,  as  it  passed  by  amid  a crowd  of 
red-clad  guards. 

Of  all  the  Khmer  kings  who  reigned  over  the  State  of 
Sukhothai-Sawankalok  either  in  one  capital  or  in  the 
other,  during  the  fifteen  hundred  years  or  so  which 
include  its  period  of  growth  and  the  zenith  of  its 
prosperity,  historians  of  the  present  day  put  names  to 
only  five,  of  whom  moreover,  two,  the  first  and  second 
rulers  of  the  State,  are  semi-mythical  creatures  of  whom 
nothing  more  is  known  than  that  they  were  the  ancestors 
of  the  long  line  of  forgotten  royalties  which  followed 
them,  and  whose  names  even,  Phra  Dhamniaraja  and 
Uloka  Kumara  (which  may  be  taken  to  mean  respec- 
tively ‘ Royal  Progenitor  ’ and  the  ‘ Dawn  of  Freedom  ’) 
are  possibly  of  comparatively  recent  invention.  The 
remaining  three  names  are  those  of  the  royal  hero 
Arunawati  Ruang,  of  his  father,  and  his  son,  the  last  of 
whom  was  also  the  last  true  Khmer  king  of  the  State. 
King  A|)ayagamuni  lives  in  history  only  as  the  father  of 
Arunawati  Ruang,  which  dignity  he  is  said  to  have 
achieved  by  a chance  union  in  a forest  with  a princess 
of  the  ‘Kaga,’  a dragon-like  being  of  the  underworld 
who  took  human  form  for  his  ensnaring.  Concerning 
the  hero  himself  a thousand  legends  are  extant,  in  which 


HISTORY 


175 


his  superior  piety,  intelligence,  wit,  and  the  miraculous 
powers  inherited  from  his  mother,  play  an  important 
part.  He  is  said  to  have  begun  by  freeing  his  country 
from  the  yoke  of  Kambodia  ; to  have  adopted  a modified 
Khmer  alphabet  (Khom)  for  use  in  scriptural  writings  ; 
to  have  invented  the  Siamese  alphabet ; to  have  estab- 
lished the  era  known  as  the  Chula  Saka,  imposing  the 
same  upon  the  Lao,  Khmer,  Burmese  and  Chinese 
people,  and  to  have  performed  many  other  works  of  the 
greatest  magnitude  and  importance.  There  is  however 
some  reason  to  believe  that  the  exploits  of  Arunawati 
Ruang  are  mostly  fiction.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to 
find  in  the  early  histories  of  Further  India  the  birth  of 
heroes  attributed  to  the  silvan  philanderings  of  Princes 
with  ‘ Naga  ’ ladies,  but  since  the  term  ‘ Naga  ’ is  applied 
in  many  parts  of  India  and  Further  India  to  savage 
tribes  as  well  as  to  the  underground  dragon-people,  it  is 
possible  that  the  objects  of  the  princely  attentions  were 
mere  simple,  but  probably  attractive,  hill-girls,  and  thus 
the  mother  of  Arunawati  Ruang  may  have  been  far  from 
competent  to  endow  her  son  with  miraculous  powers. 
From  time  to  time  during  the  history  of  Siam,  civil  wars 
and  other  political  upheavals  have  caused  such  connected 
records  as  existed  to  be  scattered  abroad  and  lost.  The 
Annals  of  the  Sukhothai-Sawankalok  kingdom,  which 
doubtless  once  existed,  have  long  since  disappeared  and 
the  works  which  now  pass  in  Siam  as  relating  the  history 
of  the  Ancient  States  are  no  more  than  collections  of 
vague  fragments  gathered  from  various  sources,  pieced 
together  in  a later  age  without  any  knowledge  of  their 
chronological  sequence.  The  annals  of  the  north  place 
the  birth  of  Arunawati  Ruang  somewhere  between 
407  A.D.  and  618  a.d.  but  recent  comparison  with  the 
chronicles  of  contiguous  countries  has  shown  that  the 
event  almost  certainly  occurred  in  the  eleventh  century 
A.D.  It  is  probable  that  the  historians  of  the  past 


176 


SIAM 


finding  tlie  name  and  existence  of  tliis  undoubtedly 
remarkable  king  standing  out  solid  facts  in  a foggy 
sea  of  mere  conjecture,  clung  to  them  and  fastened  upon 
them  events  for  which  this  individual  monarch  was  not 
responsible  but  which  were  known  to  have  happened, 
and  for  which  they  were  forced  to  find  an  author  to  the 
best  of  their  ability.  Sukhothai-Sawankalok  certainly 
threw  off  or  tried  to  throw  off  the  Ivambodian  yoke,  and 
that  many  times,  and  it  may  even  be  that  King  Arunawati 
Ruang  was  reigning  when  one  of  these  bids  for  inde- 
pendence was  made  but  there  is  absence  of  proof  that  his 
particular  rebellion  was  anything  more  remarkable  than 
those  of  his  predecessors.  That  a somewhat  modified 
form  of  the  Ivambodian  alphabet,  now  known  as  ‘ Khom  ’ 
was  in  use  in  the  state  during  the  later  period  of  the 
Khmer  kings  is  not  open  to  doubt  and  indeed  it  would 
be  strange  if  this  were  not  so  in  view  of  the  common 
origin  and  close  relationship  between  the  Khmer  of 
Kambodia  and  of  Sukhothai-Sawankalok  but  there  can 
be  little  doubt  that  it  was  the  result  of  an  adoption  and 
subsequent  gradual  alteration  of  the  alphabet  of  a 
superior  civilisation  and  no  more  the  outcome  of  the 
inventive  genius  of  one  man  than  is  the  series  of 
characters  collected  from  Kambodia,  Pegu  and  from  the 
Lao  which  forms  the  modern  Siamese  alphabet.  An 
inscription  on  stone,  found  at  Siddiothai  and  the  subject 
of  recent  discussion,  establishes  the  fact  however  that 
King  Arunawati  Ruang  undoubtedly  ordered  the  sub- 
stitution of  the  early  Siamese  for  the  Ivambodian 
ali^habet  for  use  in  official  writings,  but  this  proves 
nothing  as  to  the  invention  of  the  former.  The  in- 
vention of  the  Chula  Saka  era  has  been  claimed  for  kings 
of  Kambodia  and  Burma  as  well  as  for  King  Arunawati 
Ruang.  Evidence  is  still  lacking  as  to  where  and  by 
whom  this  era,  common  to  all  Further  India,  was  first 
inaugurated  but  in  the  inscriptions  which  have  been 


177 


HISTORY 

found  among  the  ruins  of  Sukliothai  and  SaAvankalok,. 
though  many  of  these  were  executed  as  late  as  the 
fifteenth  century  a.d.  or  about  the  middle  of  the  eighth 
century  Culila  Saka,  the  dates  inscribed  upon  them  are 
ahvays  of  the  older  Buddhist  era  ultimately  displaced  by 
the  Chula  Saka,  from  which  it  would  seem  that  if  King 
ArunaAA'ati  Ruang  iiiA^ented  the  latter,  both  he  and  his 
successors  took  care  not  to  use  it.  It  appears  from  the 
histories  of  Burma  and  from  traditions  of  the  Lao  States 
that  the  Chula  Saka  era  was  imposed  upon  the  latter 
after  one  of  the  victorious  incursions  of  the  Peguan 
arms  into  the  Lao  country.  Thence  its  use  passed  to 
Sukhothai-SaAvankalok  and  Siam  but,  though  almost 
uniA'Crsally  employed  in  Pegu  and  Burma  from  the 
tenth  century  a.d.  doAAm  to  the  present  day,  it  did  not 
come  into  general  use  in  Siam  until  the  sixteenth 
century  a.d.  aaPcu  successiA^e  Burmese  wars  brought 
vSiam  and  Burma  into  frequent  and  close  contact. 

But  though  ArunaAA-ati  Ruang  is  not  to  be  credited 
AAuth  all  the  notable  CA^ents  of  the  Khmer  period  of 
Sukhothai-SaAA^ankalok,  he  seems  to  liaA^e  been  a great 
king,  for  during  his  reign  the  country  reached  the 
zenith  of  its  prosperity  and  AAdien  he  died,  about 
1090  A.D.,  he  left  to  his  son,  Phra  Sucharat,  an  empire 
including  much  of  the  northern  Lao  States  and  all  the 
southern  Khmer  kingdoms  of  Siam.  His  successor, 
lioAA'CA^er,  AA^as  not  left  for  long  to  the  peaceful  enjoyment 
of  his  inheritance.  During  the  11th  century  a.d.  the 
Kings  of  Loj)buri  and  Lamphun,  both  Aussals  of  Suk- 
liothai-SaAvankalok  had  been  intermittently  at  wav  Avith 
each  other,  the  suzerain  PoAA'er  taking  no  part  in  the 
matter,  but  al^out  the  end  of  the  century  Lopburi  AA^as 
OA’ercome  and,  declaring  itself  subordinate  to  Lamphun, 
admitted  large  numbers  of  Lao  to  settle  AAdthin  its 
borders.  Shortly  after  the  death  of  ArunaAAuti  Ruang 
a great  Lao  army  composed  of  the  AA^arriors  of  seA^eral 


178 


SIAM 


allied  states  and  led  by  the  Chief  of  the  northerly  state 
of  Mnang  Hang,  by  name  Sndhamma  Raja,  invaded 
Sukhothai-Sawankalok  itself,  defeated  its  armies,  over- 
ran the  Khmer  lands  to  the  south,  reduced  all  the  cities 
and  founded  the  capital  of  Vishnnloka  now  called 
Pitsannlok  to  the  southward  of  Snkhothai  and  in  the 
heart  of  the  Khmer  kingdom.  Thereafter  Snkhothai 
and  Sawankalok  became  more  or  less  subordinate  to 
Lao  domination  and  their  rulers  very  little  removed 
from  a condition  of  vassalage  to  their  ancient  enemy. 
This  may  be  said  to  be  the  beginning  of  the  end  of  the 
period  of  Sukhothai-Sawankalok  supremacy  in  Siam  for, 
though  its  chiefs  continued  until  considerably  later  to 
maintain  regal  state,  no  turn  of  fortune  ever  again 
restored  them  to  the  paramount  position  of  their  fore- 
bears. The  slow  but  sure  decay  of  these  proud  cities 
began  from  this  date.  The  strength  of  their  enemies 
waxed  Avhile  their  own  waned  ; each  succeeding  ruler 
found  himself  of  less  importance  than  his  predecessor, 
until  at  last,  with  even  the  semblance  of  royalty  shorn 
away,  some  four  centuries  after  the  founding  of 
Pitsannlok  the  rulers  of  these  once  proud  cities  were 
no  more  than  provincial  governors  representing  the 
kings  of  Siam  (Ayuthia). 

Sudhamma  Raja,  King  of  Pitsannlok,  like  most  other 
Lao,  was  apparently  an  admirer  of  Khmer  institutions, 
for,  in  setting  up  his  throne  in  the  conquered  country, 
be  ordered  himself  and  his  surroundings  as  closely  as 
possible  in  imitation  of  Snkhothai  and,  by  marrying 
Padoma  Devi,  a princess  of  the  Khmer  dynasty,  set  an 
example  which  the  hordes  of  his  followers  from  the 
north  were  not  slow  to  copy  and  thus  gave  an  immense 
impetus  to  that  fusion  of  Lao  and  Khmer  which,  already 
in  process  in  Lopburi,  was  soon  to  result  in  the  evolution 
of  the  Siamese  race.  Two  sons  were  borne  by  the 
Khmer  princess  to  Her  royal  husband,  one  of  whom. 


HISTORY 


179 


Kesara  Sima  by  name,  was  in  liis  tnrn  married  to  a 
princess  of  tlie  lionse  of  Snldiotliai-Sawankalok,  and  was 
sent  by  bis  father  to  rule  over  the  vassal  state  of 
Lopbnri  (about  1110  A.D.),  while  the  other  succeeded 
his  father  at  Pitsannlok. 

From  the  date  of  Kesara  Sima’s  accession  to  the 
throne  of  Lopbnri,  the  pivot  of  Siamese  history  is 
shifted  from  the  North  and  the  great  plain  of  Central 
Siam  becomes  the  stage  on  which  the  drama  of  the 
contending  nations  is  chiefly  played.  Snkhothai- 
Sawankalok  was  sinking  ; Pitsannlok  rapidly  declined 
from  its  brief  glory  after  the  close  of  Sndhamma  Raja’s 
reign,  and  the  Lao  chieftains  of  the  north  became 
involved  in  internecine  strngglings  which  occupied 
them  fully  and  which  ultimately  caused  the  fall  of 
Lamphnn  and  the  rise  of  Chieng  Mai.  Lopbnri  there- 
fore became  the  centre  of  the  combination  and  acquired 
an  importance  which  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  both 
Kambodia  and  Pegn  haYung  nndertaken  to  concpier 
Siam  made  Lopl^nri  their  principal  objective.  About 
this  time  also  the  Lao-Klimer  half-breeds,  whose 
numbers  had  increased  witli  surprising  rapidity  all 
over  the  country  but  more  especiall^y  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Lopbnri,  began  to  look  upon  tliemselves  as 
a distinct  race  and  to  be  known  as  the  ‘ men  of  Syama  ’ 
a name  which  had  from  the  most  ancient  times  been 
occasionally  applied  to  the  group  of  states  which 
occupied  Siam,  and  which  began  to  supersede  the 
individual  names  of  those  states,  more  closely  niiited 
now  than  heretofore. 

But  though  the  men  of  ‘ Syama  ’ were  thus  becoming 
the  ‘ Siamese  ’ they  were  yet  far  from  acquiring  the 
status  of  ‘Thai’  or  ‘Free.’  Not  many  years  after  the 
accession  of  Kesara  Sima,  Lopbnri  was  badly  beaten  by 
Kambodia,  a fact  Avhich  is  borne  out  by  inscriptions  at 
Angkor  Thom,  the  ancient  capital  of  that  kingdom,  and 


180 


SIAM 


liardly  liad  tlie  armies  from  the  east  retired  when  a 
host  of  Peguans  attacked  the  Siamese  from  the  west^ 
overthrew  them  completely,  exacted  promises  of  al- 
legiance, and  retired  with  a princess  of  the  Lopburi 
royal  family  as  a bride  for  their  king.  Thus  towards 
the  end  of  the  12th  century  a.d.  Siam  occupied  the 
apparently  unpleasant  position  of  simultaneous  vassalage 
to  two  different  Powers.  Fortunately,  however,  such 
subjection  was  merel}^  nominal  and,  temporary  sub- 
ordination being  a position  to  which  the  vicissitudes  of 
war  had  long  accustomed  the  nations  of  Further  India^ 
it  was  not  allowed  to  interfere  greatly  with  the  local 
ambitions  of  the  State.  But  it  seems  to  have  been 
thought  that  Lopburi  was  unlucky  as  the  capital  of  the 
Lao-Khmer  kingdom,  for  about  1180  a.d.  King  Narai 
built  a new  city  at  Nong  Sano  close  by  the  ruins  of 
Dwarapuri,  the  city  which  had  been  founded  at  the 
same  time  as  Lopburi  and  afterwards  destroyed.  King 
Karai,  having  repudiated  the  suzerainty  of  Pegu,  was 
shortly  attacked  in  his  new  capital  by  King  Nares, 
a son  of  the  late  king  of  Pegu  and  the  Lopburi  princess 
and  consec|uently  his  cousin.  It  is  related  that  on  this 
occasion  the  contending  monarchs  had  recourse  to  a 
method  of  settling  their  differences  which  appears  to 
have  iDeeii  in  fairly  common  use  among  the  nations  of 
Further  India.  The  annals  of  the  multitude  of  states 
which  participate  in  the  history  of  Burma,  Siam  and 
Kamljodia  recount  numerous  instances  of  opposing 
armies  abandoning  tlieir  Avarlike  front  and  setting  to 
Avork  to  build  pagodas,  dig  tanks  or  perform  other 
AA^orks  of  merit  in  competition  AAntli  each  other,  under 
agreement  that  the  honours  of  the  campaign  should 
rest  Avith  the  army  AAdiich  first  completed  its  task.  In 
the  present  instance  it  AA^as  arranged  that  each  army 
should  build  a pagoda.  In  a fcAv  days  the  besieging 
host  had  far  outstripiAed  the  defenders  and  disaster  to- 


HISTORY 


181 


tlie  neAv  city  of  Nong  Saiio  seemed  imminent  when 
King  Narai  adopted  the  ruse  of  completing  his  building 
with  a light  structure  of  bamboos  and  cloth,  gilded  and 
made  to  resemble  the  genuine  brick  and  mortar  article. 
Thus  the  enemy,  full  of  confidence,  awoke  one  morning 
and  to  their  consternation  beheld  from  their  camp 
outside  the  city,  the  tall  spire  of  an  ajiparently  finished 
pagoda  flashing  in  the  sunlight,  whereupon  without 
further  inquiry  they  acknowledged  defeat  and  retired 
in  disorder. 

The  daAYii  of  the  13th  century  a.d.  saw  the  beginning 
of  the  last  and  greatest  influx  of  Laos  into  the  south 
of  Siam.  The  vigorous  suppression  of  the  Lao-Tai 
undertaken  in  South-Avest  China,  culminating  Avith 
the  victories  of  the  Chinese  Emperor  Ivul^lai  Khan, 
drove  many  thousands  of  this  people  doAAui  into  the 
mountainous  country  north  of  Siam,  AAdiere  the  noAv- 
comers  upset  the  balance  of  PoAA-er  amongst  the  older 
Lao  and  caused  the  disruption  of  several  of  their  states. 
Thus  certain  small  potentates  of  ancient  lineage,  finding 
themseKes  homeless  in  their  oaaui  lands,  gatliered  their 
folloAA^ers  together  and  sought  to  carve  out  iieAV  fortunes 
for  themselves  further  south.  Descending  the  Meh 
Ping,  the  principal  river  of  north-AAUstern  Siam,  hordes 
of  these  AAunderers  established  themselves  at  ]\Iuang 
Taksila,  Kampeng  PJiet  and  elseAvhere,  combining 
Avith  the  inhabitants  and  rapidly  ac(iuiring  great 
strength.  Idience,  after  an  interval,  they  struck 
further  south,  Avrested  Nakhon  SaAvan  and  SuAAmr- 
nabhumi  from  the  Kong  Sano  PoAver,  founding  the 
capital  city  of  Suphanhuri  close  to  the  ruins  of  the 
latter,  reached  Uatl)uri  and  idtiniately  oA^erran  tlie 
southern  peninsular  state  of  Ligor.  All  this,  liOAA^eA^er, 
AAUS  not  accomplished  in  a day.  Py  the  time  the  Lao 
kings  had  consolidated  their  poAver  and  fixed  themseh’^es 
in  their  capital  of  Suphanhuri  they,  like  the  former 


182 


SIAM 


invaders  of  Snkliothai-Sawankalok  and  Lopbnri,  had 
become  inextricably  mingled  with  the  original  popula- 
tion, and  the  13th  and  half  the  14th  century  had  passed 
away.  The  State  of  Nong  Sano  had  fared  badly  during 
this  period.  Shorn  of  its  western  provinces  and  subject 
by  Kambodia  to  a continual  drain  in  men  and  treasure, 
it  gradually  sank  into  complete  insignificance  and, 
when  the  King  of  Suphaid^uri,  fleeing  as  is  supposed 
from  a pestilence,  marched  westwards  to  found  yet 
another  capital,  Kong  Sano  fell  into  his  hands  almost 
without  a struggle.  Its  king,  the  weak  descendant  of 
the  glorious  Sudhamma  Raja  of  Pitsanulok,  fled  to 
Kambodia,  and  Plira  Chao  U Thong,  the  King  of 
Suphanl)uri,  erected'  close  b}^  the  ruins  of  the  fallen 
city  and  on  tlie  site  of  the  ancient  Dwarapuri,  the 
capital  of  Llaha  Kakhon  Sri  Ayuddhya  (Ayuthia), 
destined  to  achieve  a world  wide  fame  as  the  capital 
of  one  of  the  greatest  kingdoms  in  the  history  of 
Further  India  and  to  l)e  the  home  of  the  kings  of  Siam 
for  upwards  of  four  hundred  jmars. 

In  the  year  1350  a.d.  Phra  Chao  U Thong  under 
the  new  title  of  Phra  Ramathibodi  was  installed  as 
king’  at  Ayuthia  and  for  a long  time  afterwards  was 
fully  occupied  in  liringing  the  outlying  states  and 
j^rovinces  to  acknowledge  his  sway,  in  organising  a 
system  of  government  and  in  the  framing  of  laws,  maii}^ 
of  Avhich  were  of  surpassing  excellence  and  continue 
in  use  to  the  present  day.  In  time  the  kingdom  com- 
prised the  cities  of  Sukhothai,  Sawankalok,  Pitsanulok, 
Pichai,  Pichit,  Kampeng  Phet,  Kakhon  Sawan,  Suphan- 
l)uri,  Ratburi,  Ligor  and  Chantaburi  wdth  their 
subordinate  towns  and  districts,  and  these  not  merely 
in  a state  of  nominal  subjection  Imt  under  a more  direct 
control  than  had  been  the  case  since  the  palmy  days 
of  Sukhothai-Sawankalok.  It  was  further  claimed  that 
Tavoy,  Mergui,  and  Malacca  were  also  subject  to  A3uithia 


HISTORY 


183 


blit  this  was  probably  mere  vaunting,  since  the  Pegnans 
were  at  this  time  in  actual  occupation  of  Tavoy  and 
Mergiii,  while  the  Mala3^s  had,  as  early  as  the  13th 
century  a.d.,  made  themselves  finally  independent  in 
the  South,  and  had  liy  now  extended  their  power 
considerably  farther  north.  In  fact  Ayiithia  had  now 
succeeded  to  the  whole  of  the  Snkhothai-Sawankalok 
kingdom,  the  component  parts  of  which,  b}^  dint  of 
treaties,  matrimonial  alliances  and  other  weapons  of 
diplomacig  were  welded  together  to  such  an  extent 
that  when  Ivambodia,  annoimd  by  the  independent 
attitude  of  what  was  still  considered  a mere  appanage 
of  the  Kambodian  Crown,  sent  an  army  to  re-assert 
its  rights  of  suzerainty,  a strong  and  united  enemy 
was  met,  which,  not  only  advanced  to  try  conclusions 
ivitli  the  invader,  Imt  defeated  him,  drove  him  back, 
and  followed  him  far  within  the  confines  of  his  own 
coiintiy. 

King  Ramathibodi  died  after  a reign  of  nineteen 
years  (1369  a.d.).  Thereafter  events  moved  qiiickl}^ 
for,  before  the  close  of  the  century,  five  of  his 
descendants  liad  followed  each  other  ii])on  the  throne, 
while  two  successful  wars  had  been  accomplished, 
one  against  the  Lao  cajfital  of  Cliieng  Mai  and  the 
other  against  Kambodia.  Chieng  Mai  was  taken  and: 
added  to  the  kingdom  while  Kaml)odia,  the  old 
oppressor,  was  at  last  really  beaten,  its  caj)ital  destixyed 
and  a large  number  of  its  inhabitants  captured  and 
brought  to  swell  the  popnlatioii  of  Aomthia. 

The  15th  centnr}"  a.d.  opened  with  the  nsnrpation 
of  the  throne  b}^  a cadet  of  the  ro3xrl  famil^g  whose 
direct  descendants  sncceeded  each  other  for  more 
than  a hnndred  3^ears.  This  period  comprises  the 
reign  of  seven  kings,  under  whom  the  state  continued 
to  gain  in  strength  and  importance,  a vast  treasure 
l)eing  at  the  same  time  expended  in  beantifyiiig  the 


184 


SIAM 


capital  witli  stately  buildings  in  the  style,  though 
somewhat  degenerated,  of  Khmer  architecture. 
Buddhism  had  by  now  definitely  replaced  Brahmanism 
as  the  popular  religion  and,  not  only  in  Ayuthia  but 
in  many  of  the  provincial  cities,  great  numbers  of 
mendicant  priests  were  supported,  while  the  graceful 
spires  of  Phrachedi,  or  Pagodas,  arose  in  every  direction. 
About  1434  A.D.,  Chieng  Mai,  which  had  thrown  off 
its  allegiance,  was  again  invaded  and  reduced  to 
submission,  suffering  once  more  a loss  of  many  thou- 
sands of  its  inhabitants  carried  off  to  Ayuthia. 

In  1527  Siam  fell  under  a regency.  The  king  was 
a minor  and  the  reins  of  government  were  in  the 
hands  of  his  mother.  . This  unnatural  parent,  in  order 
to  facilitate  usurpation  by  a man  of  low  birth  whom 
she  had  married,  caused  her  son  to  be  murdered,  but 
her  schemes  were  frustrated  by  the  nobles  and  the 
people,  who  slew  both  her  and  her  husband  and 
crowned  an  uncle  of  the  late  king.  Shortly  afterwards 
another  invasion  of  Ivambodia  was  undertaken,  but 
nothing  decisive  was  accomplished. 

At  about  this  time  marauding  bands  of  Siamese  from 
Ligor,  acting  under  orders  from  Ayuthia,  penetrated 
far  into  the  province  of  Tavoy,  subordinate  to  the 
King  of  Burma  and  Pegu,  and  there  performed 
exploits  which  astonished  and  enraged  the  Burmese. 
Though  engaged  in  a campaign  in  Arakan,  King 
Thabin  Shwe  Hti  of  Burma  lost  no  time  in  collecting  an 
army  at  Maulmain,  which  advanced  into  Siam  under  the 
command  of  Bureng  Naung  the  Burmese  Heir-a]3parent. 
A jjattle  was  fought  on  the  banks  of  the  river  near 
SuiDhanl)uri,  the  Siamese  were  defeated,  and  shortly 
.afterwards  the  Burmese  Prince  appeared  before  the 
walls  of  Ayuthia  itself.  Plere,  however,  he  met 
with  a stout  resistance  and  operations  were  so  much 
prolonged  that  his  commissariat  broke  down  and  he 


HISTORY 


185 


was  forced  to  retire.  He  was  followed  by  the  Siamese 
and  fought  many  rearguard  actions  in  which  he  lost 
heavily,  and  it  Avas  Avith  a much  reduced  and  thoroughly 
beaten  army  that  he  ultimately  recrossed  the  frontier. 
Three  years  later,  hoAvever,  taking  the  assumption 
by  the  king  of  Siam  of  the  title  of  Plirci  Chao  Chang 
Peuak  or  ‘ Lord  of  the  White  Elephants  ’ as  a casus 
helli,  Bureng  Eaung,  noAv  king  of  Burma,  marched 
out  of  Pegu  Avith  a great  host  and,  brushing  aside 
all  resistance  en  route,  shortly  laid  siege  to  Ayuthia. 
To  saA^e  the  city  the  ‘ Lord  of  the  White  Elephants  ’ 
opened  negotiations  with  the  invader,  as  the  result 
of  AAdiich  several  of  the  animals  Avhich  had  caused  all 
the  trouble,  together  with  a royal  prince  as  hostage, 
Avere  handed  over  to  the  Burmese,  avIio  thereupon 
retired.  xV  conflict  of  dates  here  occurs  between  the 
Burmese  and  Siamese  histories.  The  chronicles  of 
Ayuthia  give  the  years  of  these  tA\m  invasions  from 
Pegu  as  corresponding  Avith  1543  and  1547  a.d.  AAdiile 
Burmese  records  place  them  in  the  years  1548  and 
1563  A.D.  Moreover  the  Siamese  Aversion  has  it 
that  after  liis  defeat  the  king  of  Siam  entered  a 
monastery,  ap|)ointiDg  his  son  Maha  Indra  diracha  as 
his  successor,  AAdiereas  the  Burmese  maintain  that 
the  king  Avas  actually  carried  off  along  Avith  his  AAdiite 
elephants  and  afterAAurds  permitted  l)y  his  conqueror 
to  enter  the  priesthood,  his  son  being  appointed 
gOA^ernor  of  Siam  under  the  Burmese.  Both  sides, 
lioAA^eA^er,  agree  that  A^ery  soon  after  tliis  the  royal 
monk  had  discarded  the  yelloAv  robe,  and  that  he  and 
his  son  Maha  Indra  haAung  repudiated  Burmese 
suzerainty  Avere  again  on  the  AAurpath.  This  brought 
Bureng  Xaung,  avIio  AA^as  Imsy  attacking  Cffiieng  Mai 
back  to  xVyuthia,  AAdiicli  place  he  once  more  besieged. 
The  ‘ Lord  of  the  White  Elex)hants  ’ died,  but  j\Ialia 
Indra  continued  to  resist.  Cdiieng  Mai  rose  and. 


186 


SIAM 


joining  with  Luang  Prabang  and  Wieng  Chan  sent 
an  army  to  the  assistance  of  Aynthia.  Things  began 
to  look  had  for  Bnreng  Nanng,  when  by  the  aid  of 
treachery  he  gained  admittance  to  the  city,  overcame 
the  resistance  of  the  Siamese  and  made  himself  master 
of  the  sitnation.  The  place  was  then  sacked  and 
partially  destroyed  and  King  Maha  Indra  with  the 
majority  of  his  people  was  dispatched  in  chains  to 
Pegn.  The  indefatigable  Bnreng  Nanng  returned 
to  Gliieng  Mai,  concpiered  it  and  pressed  on  to  Luang 
Prabang,  the  Chieftain  of  which  place  fled  on  his 
approach,  without  daring  to  offer  resistance.  Burmese 
governors  were  appointed  to  i^oth  these  states  and  the 
conqueror  returned  in  triumph  to  Pegu,  leaving  one 
Phra  Dhammarach  diracha,  erstwhile  governor  of 
Pitsanulok,  as  his  viceroy  in  Aynthia.  But  scarcely 
had  the  Burmese  withdrawn  than  that  unfortunate 
city  was  again  subjected  to  attack,  this  time  by  a 
Kambodian  army  sent  to  avenge  late  defeats  and  to 
reassert  ancient  claims  to  overlordship.  The  remnants 
of  the  population  were,  hoAvever,  quickly  gathered 
together,  and  managed  to  show  a front  too  bold  for 
tlie  Kambodians,  who  retired  content  with  the  loot 
of  the  surrounding  districts  which  the  Siamese  were 
])Owerless  to  protect. 

And  now,  when  the  fortunes  of  Aynthia  were  at  the 
lowest  ebb,  when,  despoiled  of  her  treasures,  her  build- 
ings in  ruins,  her  people  captives  or  fugitiAms,  and  her 
fair  provinces  given  over  to  pillage  by  her  enemies  from 
east  and  AA^est,  slie  seemed  doomed  to  extinction,  there 
arose  a hero  destined  to  retrioA^e  the  fortunes  of  his 
natiA^e  land  ami  to  carry  the  Siamese  arms  once  more 
Auctorious  into  the  heart  of  the  enemy’s  country.  This 
AA'as  Phra  Naret,  a son  of  the  regent  Phra  Dhammarach 
diracha.  Appointed  Governor  of  Pitsanulok  by  his 
father,  he  saAv  seiwice  AAdiile  yet  A^ery  Amung  both  against 


HISTORY 


187 


the  formidable  Kambodiaii  bands  wliieli  periodically 
oYerraii  his  province  and  in  the  wars  of  Nanda  Biireng, 
the  son  and  successor  of  Bureng  Naung  of  Pegu,  against 
rebellious  Ava.  Having  by  his  military  skill  aroused 
the  jealousy  and  dislike  of  Pegu  to  such  an  extent  that, 
liis  life  was  endangered,  Naret  revolted  about  1505  a.d., 
and,  while  Nanda  Bureng  was  occupied  before  Ava, 
raised  an  army  of  Siamese  with  which  he  attacked  and 
jiillaged  Tenasserim  and  Martaban.  Nanda  Bureng’ 
sent  a force  to  avenge  this  raid,  but  it  was  met  and 
defeated  at  Suphanburi,  that  cockpit  of  the  wars  witli 
Burma.  It  was  folloived  liy  another,  led  by  the  king 
liimself,  ivhich  fared  even  worse,  being  enticed  into  an 
amlnisli  liy  the  skilful  dispositions  of  Naret  and  almost 
annihilated.  Naret  was  then  proclaimed  king  of  Siam, 
and  at  once  set  to  work  to  recover  the  lost  adherence  of 
the  outlying  procinces ; and  this  he  accomplished  vrith 
the  usual  sacking  of  towns  and  carrying  off  of  captii-es 
to  repopulate  Ayuthia,  which  he  now  restored. 

King  Nanda  Bureng  was  for  some  time  occupied  with 
internal  wars,  but  having  at  length  established  his 
suiiremacy  throughout  Burma,  he  made  another  attempt 
to  sulidue  Siam.  He  sent  off  a large  army  under  the 
command  of  the  Burmese  Heir-Ap]iarent  to  invade  the 
country,  l)ut  fresh  disappointment  was  all  that  he 
gained,  for,  thougli  the  army  reached  the  wads  of 
Ayuthia  it  suffered  complete  defeat  there,  the  CV)in- 
mander-in-Chief  and  many  thousands  of  his  men 
being  slain,  and  the  rest  taken  prisoners  or  put  to 
flight. 

Tlie  western  foe  lieing  thus  disposed  of,  King  Naret 
turned  his  attention  to  the  east.  Burning  to  avenge  the 
insults  and  miseries  which  liad  been  inflicted  upon  his 
country  in  the  time  of  her  weakness,  he  iioav  called  his 
vassals  together  and  invaded  Kambodia  at  the  fiead  of 
a strong  force.  Lawek,  the  capital,  was  liesieged,  and 


188 


SIAM 


in  spite  of  a spirited  resistance  was  ultimately  taken 
and  destroyed.  The  king  of  Kambodia  and  many  of 
his  people  were  brought  to  Aynthia,  where  the  former 
was  executed,  Naret  fulfilling  an  ancient  vow  by 
bathing  his  feet  in  the  blood  of  his  enemy. 

ISTot  content  with  these  victories,  King  Naret  now 
determined  on  the  invasion  of  Burma.  He  marched 
through  Tenasserim  and  appeared  before  Han tha wadi, 
the  capital  of  Pegu.  The  place  soon  fell,  but  on  the 
approach  of  an  army  from  Ava  the  courage  of  the 
invaders  failed  them,  and  they  retired  taking  much  loot 
and  leaving  behind  Siamese  Governors  for  the  two 
provinces  of  Tavoy  and  Mergui,  the  people  of  which, 
owing  to  Burmese  oppression,  gladly  welcomed  annexa- 
tion by  Siam.  Indeed  many  thousands  of  Mons 
voluntarily  followed  Naret  to  Siam  where  they  were 
given  lands,  and  where  their  descendants  continue  in 
much  honour  to  the  present  day.  After  a short  interval 
of  rest  preparations  were  made  for  a more  determined 
effort,  and  in  the  }^ear  1593  a.d.,  according  to  Siamese 
history,  or  1599  according  to  Burmese,  a great  Siamese 
host  invaded  Burma  with  the  object  of  capturing  Ava 
itself  and  thus  subduing  the  whole  country.  But  Siam 
was  not  destined  to  achieve  this  crovuiing  triumph,  for 
early  in  the  campaign  Naret  met  a soldier’s  death,  and 
his  son  and  successor  alDandoned  the  enterj)rise  and 
withdrew  the  army. 

Thus  in  less  than  thirty  years  Siam  was  raised  by  the 
skill  and  daring  of  one  man  from  the  verge  of  national 
extinction  to  a position  of  ascendancy  over  all  the  other 
kingdoms  of  Further  India.  King  Naret  left  to  his- son 
an  empire  extending  from  the  4th  to  the  21st  degree  of 
north  latitude,  and  from  the  96th  to  the  106th  degree 
of  east  longtitude.  To  the  north  and  east  Chieng  Sen, 
Chieng  Mai,  Luang  Prabang,  Wieng  Chan  and  other 
Lao  States,  in  the  west  the  provinces  of  Tenasserim^ 


HISTORY 


189 


Tavoy  and  Mergui,  and  to  the  south  Ligor  and  its 
Malay  dependencies  were  all  recognised  as  lying  within 
the  frontier,  while  both  the  Ivambodian  and  Burmese 
armies  had  been  many  times  beaten  and  driven  far 
away  within  their  own  borders.  Siam,  in  fact,  had 
become  a Power,  and  so  thorongh  had  been  the  work  of 
the  builder  that  his  empire  did  not  crumble  away 
immediately  on  his  decease,  as  usually  happened  with 
Further  Indian  conquests,  but  in  spite  of  revolutions  and 
all  manner  of  internal  commotions  and  of  more  than 
one  foreign  Avar,  held  together  for  a subsequent  period 
of  175  years. 

After  the  death  of  Phra  Naret,  his  son,  his  grandson, 
and  his  brother  folloAA^ed  each  other  in  quick  succession 
upon  the  throne.  A reAmlution  then  took  place,  Avhen 
the  reins  of  goA^ernment  AA^ere  seized  by  one  Phaya 
SuriAA^ongse,  a noble  of  high  standing.  Under  the  title 
of  Phra  Chao  Prasat  Thong,  this  king  reigned  for  OA^er 
tAventy  years,  and  his  death  Avas  the  signal  for  a 
scramble  for  the  throne  at  the  end  of  AAdiich  in  1655  a.d., 
one  of  his  sons,  Phra  Narai,  after  disposing  of  a brother 
and  an  uncle  aaFo  liarred  his  AAuy,  made  himself  undis- 
puted master  of  the  realm.  Thereafter  folloAved  thirty- 
three  prosperous  and  more  or  less  peaceful  years  during 
AA'hich  the  Arts  and  Commerce  flourished  exceedingly, 
official  relations  AA^ere  established  AAnth  European 
Sovereigns,  and  Siam  became  knoAAm  to  the  West  as  one 
of  the  rich  and  poAverful  countries  of  the  Far  East.  At 
the  beginning  of  his  reign,  Phra  Uarai  im^aded  Burma, 
but  the  enterprise  miscarried  and  the  army  Avas  forced 
to  content  itself  Avith  the  loot  of  some  of  the  Lao 
States  Avhich  had  sIioaaui  signs  of  reA^olt. 

For  some  time  lAast  Siam  had  lieen  knoAvn  to  the 
European  merchant-adA-enturers  resorting  to  the  Far 
East  under  the  flags  of  Portugal,  Holland,  and  England. 
Early  in  the  IGth  century  a.d.,  the  Malay  kingdom  of 


190 


SIAM 


Malacca,  to  the  suzerainty  over  which  Siam  asserted  a 
shadowy  claim,  had  been  conquered  by  the  Portuguese, 
and  individuals  of  that  nation  had  penetrated  to  Ayuthia 
and  to  Pegu.  Portuguese  volunteers  were  to  be  found 
in  the  ranks  of  both  armies  during  the  Burmese-Siamese 
wars,  and  it  is  on  record  that  three  Portuguese  ships 
taking  part  in  the  defence  of  Ayuthia  in  1548  a.d., 
were  destroyed  there.  Portuguese  traders  also  settled 
in  the  Siamese  ports  of  Kedah,  Mergui,  Ligor,  and 
Patani  taking  some  part  in  local  politics,  and  in  more 
than  one  instance  rising  to  positions  of  trust  in  the 
service  of  the  State.  In  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century  a.d.,  Portuguese  missionaries  settled  at  Ayuthia, 
where  they  were  received  with  favour  and  given  land 
for  churches  and  other  advantages.  At  about  the  same 
time  English  and  Dutch  ships  first  appeared  in  Siamese 
waters,  and  an  obstinate  rivalry  soon  sprang  up  amongst 
the  foreigners,  who  competed  for  commercial  supremacy 
and  for  the  favour  of  the  King  and  his  governors 
Avithout  AAdiich  little  or  no  trade  could  be  carried  on. 
This  rivalry  led  to  constant  quarrelling  and  often  to 
desperate  fighting,  a fierce  sea  battle  being  fought  in 
the  Patani  roads  as  early  as  1619  a.d.,  Avhen  two 
English  ships  under  the  brave  John  Jourdain  struck  to 
three  Dutchmen  under  Hendrick  Johnson  after  the 
English  commander  had  been  killed.  In  1634  a.d.,  the 
Dutch  had  so  far  prospered  that  they  had  built  a 
fortified  factory  at  Ayuthia  and  had  extensive  commerce 
all  over  the  country  Avhile  the  foreign  carrying  trade 
to  C4iina  and  Japan  Avas  in  their  hands.  In  1641  a.d., 
the  Dutch  took  Malacca  from  Portugal,  and  thus  sounded 
the  knell  of  Portuguese  influence  in  Siam.  Many 
individuals  of  that  nation  continued,  hoAA^ever,  to  liA^e 
and  trade  at  Ayuthia,  their  descendants  persisting  in 
Siam  at  the  present  day,  bearing  high  - sounding 
Portuguese  names,  but  otheiwise,  through  constant 


191 


HISTORY 

admixture  of  Siamese  blood,  sliowiug  small  sign  of  their 
European  ancestry. 

The  pushing  Dutchmen  soon  supplanted  the 
Portuguese  at  all  points  where  the  latter  had  established 
factories.  They  confined  themselves  chiefly  to  trade 
and  took  little  or  no  interest  in  Siamese  politics  except 
where  their  commercial  prospects  were  affected.  The 
fi  rst  formal  treaty  contracted  by  Siam  with  any  European 
Power  was  that  entered  into  in  the  year  1604  a.d.  with 
the  i-epresentatives  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company, 
authorised  by  the  Dutch  Republic.  The  Dutch  con- 
tinued to  trade  with  Siam  until  the  year  1706  a.d.  when, 
their  truculent  disposition  having  led  to  frequent 
ruptures  with  the  government,  they  finally  lost  the  royal 
favour  and  shorth^  afterwards  Ijroke  up  their  factory 
on  the  banks  of  the  Menani  Chao  Phaya  river,  the  site 
of  which  is  still  known  as  Amsterdam. 

In  1659  A.D.  there  arrived  at  Ayuthia  a Euro])ean 
who  was  destined  to  mould  for  a time  the  fortunes  of 
Siam  and  to  lead  the  country  into  a political  maze  in 
which  she  came  near  to  losing  hei'self.  The  histories 
of  India  and  the  Far  East  are  rich  in  romantic  tales  of 
European  adventurers  wafted  by  curious  chances  from 
the  humble  condition  of  soldier,  sailor  or  merchant,  to 
dizzy  heights  of  pOAver  where  they  controlled  the  destiny 
of  millions  and  Avhence  they  very  often  descended  Avith 
a suddenness  as  amazing  as  their  elevation,  but  feAv  such, 
stories  can  equal  that  of  Constantine  Faulkon,  the  son 
of  a Cephalonian  innkeeper,  aa4io  ran  aAAuy  to  sea  in  an 
English  ship  and  arriAung,  after  man}-  Aucissitudes,  in 
vSiam,  rose  to  be  the  Chief  Minister  and  trusted  adAnser 
of  King  Phra  Karai.  Under  the  guidance  of  this  man, 
to  AAdiose  great  al)ilities  and  numerous  other  good 
qualities  the  natiA^e  and  foreign  chronicles  of  this  period 
of  Siamese  histoiy  one  and  all  l)ear  AAutness,  the  country 
for  a time  ])ros[)ered  exceedingly.  The  Portuguese  and 


192 


SIAM 


Diitcli  traders  already  established  were  encouraged  to 
extend  the  scope  of  their  enterprise  and  the  English 
and  French  East  India  Companies  were  also  induced  to 
set  up  factories  at  the  capital.  The  King  himself 
became  the  principal  merchant  in  his  own  country  and 
owned  a fleet  of  merchant  ships  with  which  he  did 
business,  greatly  to  the  profit  of  himself  and  of  his 
First  Minister. 

In  addition  to  the  native  inhabitants,  Ayuthia  had 
at  that  time  a large  population  of  Malay,  Annamese, 
Kambodian,  Burmese,  Indian  and  Japanese  settlers,  the 
descendants  of  war  captives  and  persons  who  for  one 
reason  or  another  had  fled  from  their  own  country,  and 
an  extensive  trade  was  carried  on  with  China  and  Japan, 
Sumatra  and  India.  The  city  was  therefore  selected  as 
the  most  central  spot  for  the  establishment  of  a Roman 
Catholic  Mission  which  was  being  organised  in  France 
with  the  ambitious  design  of  converting  the  whole  of 
the  Far  East  and,  in  the  beginning  of  1662  a.d.,  three 
French  bishops  with  a staff  of  priests  arrived  to  in- 
augurate the  work.  These  were  well  received  by  the 
king  and  very  soon  the  mission  had  secured  a consider- 
able number  of  adherents.  In  order  further  to 
strengthen  their  position  the  priests  obtained  the 
countenance  and  official  support  of  Louis  XIV  of  France, 
who  sent  complimentary  letters  and  envoys  to  Siam  and 
had  the  pleasure  of  receiving  the  first  Siamese  am- 
bassadors ever  sent  to  Europe.  The  bishops  received 
much  assistance  from  Faulkon  who  presently  entered 
into  correspondence  with  Colbert,  the  Minister  of 
France.  The  interest  which  had  been  aroused  in  the 
mind  of  the  French  King  in  the  spiritual  welfare  of 
Siam,  in  time  became  diverted  to  things  temporal  and 
a scheme  was  set  on  foot  for  securing  the  supremacy  of 
France  in  that  far-away  country  through  the  agency  of 
the  priests,  who  appeared  to  believe  that  with  material 


HISTORY 


193 


support  from  France  they  could  convert  the  King  him- 
self to  Christianity.  Six  French  ships  of  war  and  a 
body  of  1400  soldiers  were  therefore  sent  to  Siam, 
ostensibly  to  assist  in  over-awing  the  Dutch  who  were 
making  themselves  unpleasant  from  their  stronghold  of 
Malacca.  The  ports  of  Bangkok  and  Mergni,  the  gates 
of  the  country,  were  garrisoned  by  the  French  troops 
and  the  King  was  jirevailed  upon  to  attach  a select  few 
to  his  own  person.  The  missionaries  then  opened  with 
their  spiritual  batteries  but  found  that  the  conversion 
of  the  King  was  a more  difficult  matter  than  they  had 
expected.  Their  obstinate  insistence  with  him  and  his 
apparent  subservience  to  Faulkon,  who  by  this  time  had 
been  created  a count  of  France,  ended  by  alarming  the 
Siamese.  Remonstrances  were  made  against  the  ad- 
mission of  an  ever-increasing  number  of  foreigners  into 
the  service  of  the  State  and,  these  ])assing  unheeded,  a 
conspiracy  was  formed,  the  King  was  taken  prisoner  at 
the  summer  palace  which  he  had  built  at  the  historic 
city  of  Lopl^uri  and  was  dethroned,  Faulkon  was  killed, 
the  European  troops  driven  out  of  the  countiy,  and 
Siam  was  saved  from  a condition  which  must  shortly 
have  become  that  of  a French  dependency. 

This  coup  cVetat  having  been  accomplished,  the  con- 
spirators proclaimed  as  king  one  of  their  number,  an 
officer  of  high  rank  named  Phra  Pet  Rache,  who 
soon  restored  trancpiillity.  He  also  revived  foreign 
trade,  disorganised  by  the  recent  commotions,  by 
renewing  diplomatic  relations  with  France  and  by 
improving  those  already  in  existence  with  othei- 
European  nations.  He  did  not  live  long,  however,  and 
when  he  died  the  legitimate  dynast}^  was  restored  to 
the  succession.  A son  of  King  Karai  and  a grandson 
occupied  the  throne  in  turn  for  a few  peaceful  years. 
The  latter  died  young,  leaving  two  small  sons,  and 
while  the  nobles  were  deliberating  as  to  the  succession, 


194 


SIAM 


an  imcle  of  the  lads  who,  though  he  had  long  held  the 
title  of  Uparach  Mongkut,  or  Heir-presumptive,  would 
probably  have  been  passed  over,  settled  the  matter  by 
suddenh^  storming  the  palace  at  the  head  of  his  own 
followers,  overpowering  the  guard,  scattering  the  little 
princes  and  the  nobility  and  proclaiming  himself  king. 

civil  war  was  the  result  of  this  action  but  the  people 
soon  found  that  the  power  had  been  seized  by  the 
strongest  member  of  the  royal  family  and  ended  by 
accepting  the  situation  ; the  youthful  princes  dis- 
appeared and  when  the  King  died  he  was  succeeded  by 
his  own  sons. 

Ever  since  the  end  of  the  16th  century  a.d.  the  war 
between  Siam  and  Burma,  with  the  exception  of  various 
unimportant  frontier  raids,  had  been  in  abeyance,  the 
Burmese  kingdom  being  torn  with  internecine  strife 
and  therefore  too  weak  to  avenge  the  victories  of  King 
Karet,  and  the  Siamese  being  occupied  with  the  develop- 
ment of  trade  and  commerce  and  with  their  own  internal 
troubles.  But  about  the  year  1759  a.d.,  the  great 
Alaung  Phra  liaAung  reunited  Ava  and  Pegu  and  the 
outlying  provinces  of  Burma,  renewed  hostilities  by 
r)ccupying  Martaban,  Mergui  and  Tavoy.  He  shortly 
afterwards  im-aded  Siam  from  the  south,  defeated  a 
Siamese  army  at  the  crossing  of  the  Meklong  river 
near  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  Siam,  and  appeared  before 
Ayuthia.  Here,  however,  he  was  taken  suddenly  ill 
and,  withdrawing  his  forces,  died  before  he  could  regain 
his  own  country.  A few  years  of  peace  followed  when 
a raid  into  Pegu  by  the  Chief  of  Chieng  Mai  gave  the 
signal  for  a resumption  of  the  war.  Sin  Byu  Shin,  a 
son  of  Alaung  Phra  liad  inherited  the  throne  and  the 
warlike  qualities  of  his  father.  He  sent  one  strong 
force  to  punish  Chieng  Mai  and  at  once  set  about 
collecting  another  at  Tavoy.  As  soon  as  Chieng  Mai 
and  incidentally  AVieng  Chan  and  other  Lao  States, 


HISTORY 


195 


had  been  reduced  to  submission,  the  two  armies 
advanced  simnltaneonsl}^  upon  Aynthia,  that  from 
Tavoy  following  the  old  Snphanburi  route  and  that 
from  Chieng  Mai  descending  the  river  Menam  Chao 
Phaya.  After  several  enconntei’S  with  the  inhabitants 
the  forces  met  at  Aynthia  and  sat  down  before  the  city. 
A large  Siamese  army  had  been  assenil)led  within  the 
walls  and  this,  sallying  out,  engaged  the  Burmese 
divisions  as  they  came  ii]5.  The  Siamese  were  however 
defeated  in  each  case  and  very  soon  found  themselves 
hemmed  in  behind  their  ramparts  with  supplies  effectn- 
all}^  cut  off.  The  king  of  Siam  at  this  critical  moment 
was  Somdet  Phra  Maha  Bowarn  Sncharit,  a son  of  the 
Uparach  i\[ongkut.  Though  nnaccustomed  to  war,  he 
showed  a good  front  and.  encouraged  his  yieople  to  a 
rigorous  defence.  All  through  the  dry  season  the 
enemy  maintained  a steady  blockade  and  when  tlie  rains 
brought  the  aniinal  floods,  though  forced  to  retire  to 
higher  ground,  they  patrolled  the  waters  in  hundreds 
of  boats  and  thus  effectively  maintained  the  im^estment. 
flflie  Siamese  had  hojied  that  the  floods  would  cause  tlie 
raising  of  the  siege  but  were  disap])ointed,  for  the 
Burmese  held  on  and,  as  the  waters  srdosided,  threw 
up  new  earthworks  near  to  the  avails  maldng  the  invest- 
ment closer  than  ever.  Flying  columns  of  the  invading 
army  pillaged  the  surrounding  districts  and  drove  off 
a Lao  force  which  attem])ted  a diversion  in  favour  of 
the  besieged.  At  last  in  17(35  a.d.,  the  heart  of  King 
Sncharit  failed  him.  He  tried  to  leave  tlie  city  l)ut  was 
driv^en  hack,  he  opened  ])arley  with  the  enemy  but  v\as 
rebuffed.  Tlie  Burmese,  reinforced  from  Ava,  delivered, 
an  assault  in  force,  overcame  the  weakening  defence, 
ajid  in  the  confusion  and  massacre  which  followed,  the 
King  escajied  unattended,  only  to  die  of  exposure  a few 
days  later. 

Thus  the  city  of  Aynthia  finally  succumbed  to  the 


196 


SIAM 


Burmese.  For  four  liundred  and  seventeen  years  the 
seat  of  powerful  inonarchs,  the  metropolis  of  an  Empire 
and  one  of  the  greatest  emporia  of  trade  in  the  Far  East, 
amid  the  smoke  of  a vast  conflag’i’ation  her  tall  gilded 
spires  and  graceful  palaces  now  disappear  for  ever  from 
the  pages  of  history.  A great  amount  of  treasure  and 
many  thousands  of  captives,  including  members  of  the 
royal  family  and  several  European  traders  and  mission- 
aries, fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Burmese  conquerors  and 
were  by  them  transferred  to  Ava. 

But  though  Ayuthia  had  fallen  Siam  was  by  no  means 
beaten  and  when,  therefore,  Sin  Byu  Shin  withdrew  his 
army  to  meet  a threatened  Chinese  invasion  of  Burma, 
the  Viceroy  who  was  left  with  a small  garrison  to  rule 
the  country,  soon  found  himself  in  serious  difficulty. 
AVith  the  fall  of  the  capital  all  the  outlying  provinces 
had  quietly  assumed  independence  while  the  more 
central  districts  became  infested  with  robber  bands 
which  plundered  the  countiy  and  continually  united  in 
harassing  the  army  of  occupation. 

Again,  as  in  1565  a.d.,  the  hour  of  Siam’s  adversit}" 
])rought  forth  the  man  gifted  with  the  qualities  necessary 
to  retrieve  the  fortunes  of  the  kingdom.  Phaya  Tak  Sin, 
an  official  who  derived  his  title  from  the  ancient  city  of 
Taksila  Nakhon,  had  escaped  from  Ayuthia  l^efore  the 
end  of  the  siege  and  had  betaken  himself  with  a band 
of  about  1000  men  to  the  hills  of  Nakhon  Nay  ok  not  far 
distant.  There  he  established  himself  for  a time  and 
thence  he  descended  after  the  fall  of  the  capital  to  do 
])attJe  with  the  Burmese  Viceroy.  Having  marched 
through  tlie  south-west  provinces  and  having  by  various 
methods  secured  the  adherence  of  those  districts,  he 
advanced  upon  Ayuthia,  defeated  the  A^iceroy  and  in 
the  al)sence  of  any  scion  of  the  royal  family,  made 
himself  King.  The  village  of  Bangkok  where  stood  the 
fortress  once  occu])ied  by  French  trooj^s,  having  been 


197 


HISTORY 

13ronounced  by  the  soothsayers  to  be  a j^lace  of  good 
omen,  Avas  chosen  as  the  site  of  the  neAv  capital  and 
A^ery  soon  became  a populous  city.  The  King  AA^as 
seldom  there,  lioAA^eA^er,  for  AAotli  untiring  energy  he 
led  his  armies  on  a series  of  campaigns  Avhich  Avithin 
ten  years  stripped  from  the  outlying  jirovinces  their 
neAv  found  inde])endence  and  made  him  master  of  the 
AAdiole  country  from  far  doAAUi  the  Peninsula  u])  to  the 
northern  confines  of  Luang  Prabang,  the  proAunces  of 
Martaban,  Mergui  and  Tavoy  remaining,  hoAA^ever,  in 
the  hands  of  the  Burmese. 

King  Sin  Byu  Shin  haAung  got  rid  of  his  Chinese 
iiiA^aders  made  an  effort  to  recover  Siam  and  having 
heard  of  the  reconquest  of  the  Lao  States,  sent  a force 
to  reassert  his  authority  there,  at  the  same  time  ordering 
the  Governor  of  Martaban  to  collect  troo])s  for  an  attack 
on  Bangkok.  The  enterprise  hoAvever  AA-as  a failure. 
The  Lao  of  Chieng  Mai  refused  to  submit,  Wien  Chan, 
though  occupied,  could  not  be  properly  garrisoned,  the 
Mon  levies  of  MartalAan  mutinied  and  deserted  to  the 
Siamese,  and  the  death  of  Sin  Byu  Shin  himself  put  an 
end  to  the  operations. 

Pliaya  Tak  Sin  iioav  dis])atche(l  an  army  to  invade 
Kambodia,  over  AAfiiich  country  he  as  King  of  Siam, 
claimed  to  have  suzerain  rights,  and  himself  marched 
aAA'ay  to  the  north-east  to  expel  the  AA^eak  Burmese 
garrison  from  ACien  Chan.  The  Lao,  joining  Avith  the 
Burmese,  olf'ered  a s])irited  resistance  and  the  city  Avas 
therefore  looted  on  being  taken,  the  celebrated  Emerald 
Buddha  now  ]>reserved  in  the  Palace  ])recincts  at 
Bangkok,  being  amongst  the  great  treasure  brought 
aAvay. 

Shortly  afteimards,  in  1781  a.d.  the  king  carried  aAvay 
by  his  successes,  conceiA^ed  an  idea  Avith  AAdiich  more 
than  one  former  Buddhist  monarch,  including  Alaung 
Phra,  had  become  possessed,  namely  that  he  aaus  himself 


198 


SIAM 


a Biiddlia.  This  led  him  into  the  performance  of  sncli 
wild  extravagances  as  constituted  a grave  public  danger 
and  aroused  the  fear  and  dislike  of  his  people.  The 
upshot  was  tliat  he  was  dethroned  and  murdered  b}^  the 
nobles,  and  one  of  his  generals  by  title  Somdet  Chao 
Piiaya  j\faha  Ivrachat  Seuk,  formerly  Chao  Phaya 
Chakkri,  in  whose  veins  ran  the  Ihood  of  kings  and  to 
vdiom  in  a great  measure  the  military  successes  of  the 
last  decade  had  been  due,  was  recalled  from  the  army 
operating  against  Kambodia  and  was  made  king, 
ascending  the  throne  in  1782  a.d.  under  the  title  of 
8omdet  Phra  Budayot  Fa. 

The  new  king  had  not  long  been  proclaimed  when 
Bodaw  Phra,  King  of  Burma,  began  to  make  preparations 
for  the  reconcjuest  of  Siam  and  the  exaction  of  tribute  said 
to  be  due  from  the  date  of  the  fall  of  Ayuthia.  When 
all  was  ready  the  war  v^as  opened  with  an  attack  by  the 
Burmese  on  the  island  of  Puket  (Junk  Ceylon)  consti- 
tuting a Siamese  ])rovince  off  the  west  coast  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula.  A lodgment  was  effected  but  an  army  from 
Nakhon  Sri  Thammarat  (Ligor)  speedily  recovered  the 
island  and  ejected  the  enemy.  This  was  followed  by 
tlie  massing  of  troops  at  Tavoy,  Martaban  and  Chieng 
Mai,  on  com])letion  of  which  operations  (1785  a.d.), 
Bodaw  Phra  gave  the  signal  fora  simultaneous  advance, 
liimself  leading  the  Martaban  contingent.  King  Budayot 
Fa,  however,  was  equal  to  the  occasion.  Mustering  the 
veterans  whom,  as  Pliaya  Chakkri,  he  had  so  often  led 
to  victoiT,  he  op]>osed  the  advance  at  all  points.  The 
Burmese  commissariat  was  as  usual  but  ill  equijijied 
and  was  quite  unable  to  provide  food  for  the  large 
n amber  of  men  in  the  field,  while  the  Siamese  had 
]-enioved  all  local  supplies  from  the  different  lines  of 
march.  The  invaders  began  to  suffer  heavily  from 
starvation,  desertion  and  disease  and,  constantly  harassed 
by  the  enemy,  became  demoralised.  To  make  matters 


HISTORY 


199 


■worse,  Bodaw  Plira  in  a fit  of  anger  executed  liis  principal 
general  officer.  King  Bndayot  Fa  at  length  boldly 
attacked  the  Martaban  and  Tavoy  forces  -with  all  his 
strength.  The  Tavoy  army  was  almost  wiped  out  wliile 
Bodaw  Phra  with  the  Martaban  contingent  was  driv^en 
back  over  the  Burmese  border  vrith  the  loss  of  half  his 
numbers.  The  Chieng  Mai  force  met  with  some  success 
but  being  nnsn])ported,  ultimately  fell  liack  on  Martal^an 
leaving  the  Siamese  everywhere  victorious.  Indeed  the 
Burmese  power  was  for  the  moment  so  completely  liroken 
that  had  King  Bndayot  followed  up  his  success  with 
vigour  he  would  have  found  Burma  at  liis  mercy  and 
might  have  signally  avenged  former  humiliations  liy 
sacking  Amarapnra,  the  capital.  But  no  advantage  was 
taken  of  the  dissipation  of  the  Burmese  forces  for, 
though  Mergui  and  Tavoy  were  attacked  and  occupied, 
no  invasion  was  ])ushed  home.  The  last  named  two 
jirovinces  were  held  for  a few  years  Imt  were  ultimately 
abandoned.  Bodaw  Phra  was,  however,  cured  of  his 
desire  to  concpier  Siam.  His  attention  presently  became 
fixed  on  Arakan  and  the  doings  of  the  Honourable  East 
India  Company  in  that  neighbourhood,  and  King  Bndayot 
Fa  was  left  in  ])eace.  In  fact,  with  the  final  abandonment 
of  Mergui  and  Tavoy  in  1792  a.d.  the  wars  between 
Burma  and  Siam  which  had  continued  at  intervals 
through  so  many  centuries,  may  be  said  to  liaise  come  to 
an  end  for,  though  Chieng  Mai,  Chieng  Tung  and  the 
island  of  Puket  were  occasionally  afterwards  bones  of 
contention  between  the  two  Powers,  subsequent  operations 
in  those  districts  were  never  on  a large  scale  and  were 
rather  the  authorised  raids  of  local  levies  than  the 
undertakings  of  sei’ious  war. 

King  Bndayot  Fa  now  turned  his  attention  to  the 
consolidation  of  his  kingdom  and  the  organisation  of 
better  government.  Having  moved  the  capital  from  the 
west  to  the  east  side  of  the  River  ]\lenam,  he  built 


200 


SIAM 


himself  a palace  and  surrounded  it  with  a double  line  of 
fortifications,  between  the  inner  and  outer  of  which  a 
fair  city  soon  arose,  recalling  both  by  the  style  of 
architecture  and  by  the  names  of  the  principal  buildings, 
the  past  glories  of  Ayuthia.  The  submission  of  the 
vassal  provinces  was  secured,  their  rulers  drinking 
the  waters  of  allegiance  and  swearing  fealty  in  Bangkok. 
Governors  were  appointed  from  amongst  the  King’s 
most  trusted  followers  to  the  charge  of  the  provinces  of 
Siam  proper  and  courts  were  established  for  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice  in  accordance  with  the  ancient 
laAvs  of  the  land,  to  AA^hich  laAvs  the  king  himself  made 
many  notable  additions.  Somdet  Phra  Budayot  Fa 
reigned  for  tAventy-seven  years  and  dying  Avas  succeeded 
in  1809  by  his  son  Somdet  Phra  Budalot  La,  the  great 
grandfather  of  the  present  Sovereign. 

In  various  Chinese  chronicles  and  records,  some  of 
them  of  great  antiquity,  mention  is  made  of  Siam,  of 
envoys  and  letters  sent  to  and  received  from  that 
country  and  of  the  exchange  of  presents  betAveen  the 
Emperors  of  China  and  the  Kings  of  Siam.  The  presents 
sent  by  Siam  are  represented  in  the  records  of  later 
times,  as  tribute  payable  by  a vassal  state,  but  Siam 
AA-as  never  invaded  or  conquered  by  China  and  the 
earliest  chronicles  speak  of  eiwo^^s  passing  between 
the  tAA"0  countries  bearing  messages  in  AAdiich  the 
rulers  addressed  each  other  in  terms  denoting  equality. 
There  is  abundant  eAudence  that  to  Siam  as  AA^ell  as 
the  other  nations  of  Further  India,  to  stand  AA^ell  AAntli 
China  appeared  an  advantage  and  that  any  little  com- 
plimentary attention  received  therefrom  AA^as  invariabl}" 
made  a matter  for  boasting  and  self-congratulation. 
Also  the  formalities  observed  in  the  offering  of  j^resents 
to  China  Avere  identical  Avith  those  exacted  by  the 
Kings  aaFo  made  them,  from  their  oaaoi  A-assals  on 
occasi(jns  on  ])ayment  of  tribute  by  the  latter.  Hence 


HISTORY 


201 


it  seems  probable  that  whatever  may  have  been  the 
nature  of  the  earlier  presents,  those  made  in  the  middle 
ages  and  later,  were  propitiatory  offerings  made  with 
the  object  of  securing  the  good  will  of  an  acknowledged 
great  Power  and  therefore  to  be  regarded  perhaps  as 
in  some  sort  tribute.  It  is  probal^le  that  Siam  came 
in  time  to  look  upon  China  with  the  respect  that  is 
sometimes  felt  by  a younger  for  an  elder  brother  and 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  some  of  the  numerous 
Siamese  Kings  who  found  themselves  on  the  throne 
with  small  right  to  be  there,  sought,  in  the  ratification 
of  their  succession  by  China,  an  argument  to  strengthen 
their  position  in  the  eyes  of  their  own  people.  It  is 
on  record  (in  China)  for  instance,  that  King  Phra 
Karet  when  he  had  retaken  Siam  from  the  Burmese, 
asked  for  official  recognition  by  China  of  his  right  to 
the  throne. 

The  last  mention  in  any  Chinese  records  of  the  sub- 
mission of  the  so-called  tribute  by  Siam  to  China 
occurs  in  the  earliest  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  a.d. 
in  the  reign  of  King  Phra  Budayot,  since  when  the 
ancient  custom  has  loeen  allowed  to  fall  into  disuse. 
China  certainly  never  made  any  pretence  of  assisting 
vSiam  in  her  wars  nor,  though  she  claimed  I)oth  Burma 
and  Kambodia  as  her  vassals  equally  with  Siam,  did 
she  take  any  step  to  check  the  continual  onslaughts 
of  the  nations  of  Further  India  upon  each  other.  A 
letter  has  been  preserved,  however,  in  which  the 
Emperor  of  China,  writing  to  the  King  of  Siam  about 
the  year  1566  a.d.,  expatiates  u])on  the  charms  of 
peace  and  exhorts  his  friend  and  younger  brother 
to  eschew  barl^arous  war,  the  delight  of  savages,  to 
cultivate  the  gentle  arts,  and  to  live  in  harmony  with 
his  neighbours,  but  this,  coming  in  reply  to  a prayer 
for  assistance  and  arriving  at  a moment  when  Siam, 
hemmed  in  by  enemies,  was  fighting  desjjerately  for 


202 


SIAM 


mere  existence,  can  hardly  have  served  any  purpose 
other  than  the  gratification  of  the  writer’s  opinion  of 
Iiis  own  epistolary  composition.  The  intimate  relations 
which  at  present  exist  hetAveen  the  tAAm  nations  have 
heen  the  result  of  commerce  alone  and  date  from 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  a.d.,  AAdien  the 
rice  trade  Avith  China  first  began  and  a colony  of 
Chinese  merchants  AAms  admitted  to  reside  at  Ajmthia. 

Military  operations  in  Ivambodia  AA’^ere  undertaken 
early  in  the  reign  of  Somdet  Phra  Budalot  La.  Siam 
]iad  now  come  to  regard  as  her  oaaui  the  heritage  of 
the  birth-place  of  Indo-Chinese  ciAulisation,  and  con- 
sidered that  she  had  acquired  the  right  to  demand 
tribute  from  the  descendants  of  the  AA^orn-out  Suzerain 
PoAver.  But  it  appeared  on  the  other  hand  that  the 
Kings  of  Annam  aAAmy  to  the  east  had  also  beaten  the 
Kambodians  and  therefore  put  foimard  claims  probably 
about  as  good  as  those  of  the  Siamese.  In  I78G,  Iioaa^- 
Gvev,  during  the  minority  of  the  CroAAui  of  Ivambodia, 
the  regent  of  tlie  country  fomially  recognised  Siamese 
supremacy  and  sent  the  infant  King  to  reside  in 
Bangkok,  himself  continuing  to  gOA^ern  the  state  under 
Siam.  In  1809  a.d.  an  immsion  by  Annam  took  place 
and  to  meet  this  intrusion  Phra  Budalot  La  dispatched 
an  army  from  Bangkok.  The  campaign  AAms  brief, 
liOAveAmr,  and  ended  in  an  agreement  by  \drtue  of 
which  the  Kambodian  province  of  Phratabong  (Battain- 
bong)  in  AAdiich  is  situated  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
cayntal  of  Angkor,  aaus  annexed  l)y  Siam,  AAUiile  the  re- 
mainder of  the  country  became  a dependency  of  Annam. 

Except  for  this  Kambodian  affair  in  AAdiich  neither 
the  Siamese  arms  nor  diplomacy  gained  much  credit, 
the  reign  of  Phra  Ihidalot  La  aaxis  one  of  peace.  In 
1825  A.D.  he  died  AAdien  the  throne  aaus  seized  by  one 
of  his  sons  by  a lesser  AAufe,  the  rightful  heir,  Chao 
Fa  Mongkut,  a youth  of  tAA^entA^-one  retiring  AAuth  a 


HISTORY 


203 


younger  lirotlier  into  tlie  safe  seclusion  of  tlie 
priesthood.  The  new  King  took  the  title  of  Somclet 
Phra  Chao  Prasat  Thong  but  lives  in  history  as  Phra 
Kang  Klao.  His  reign  of  twenty-seven  years  was 
chiefly  remarkal^le  for  the  re-establishment  of  political 
relations  with  the  nations  of  the  West.  In  1821  A.n. 
(hiring  the  reign  of  King  Phra  Bndalot  La,  the  Hon. 
East  India  Company  had  deputed  Mr  John  Crawfnrd 
as  an  Envoy  to  the  Court  of  Siam  with  a view  to 
making  a treaty  but  nothing  had  resulted  from  that 
mission.  In  1820,  however,  a second  attempt  was 
made  when  Captain  Bnrney,  a lirother  of  Fanny 
Burney  the  novelist,  was  received  by  King  Phra  Kang 
Klao,  and  a treaty  of  friendship  and  commerce  was 
made  betiveen  Great  Britain  and  Siam  in  that  year, 
proAnding  for  the  settlement  of  petty  disputes,  the 
mntnal  surrender  of  criminals,  defining  spheres  of 
influence  in  tlie  Malay  Peninsula  and  securing  freedom 
of  trade.  This  treaty  vdiich,  vdth  the  exception  of 
that  made  ivith  the  Dutch  in  1(304  a.d.  and  of  one 
Avith  tlie  French  at  the  end  of  the  seventeeth  century, 
Avas  the  first  entered  into  Avith  a Pnro])ean  PoAver, 
AA'as  followed  in  1833  by  another  AAotli  the  United 
States  of  America,  regulating  the  treatment  of  American 
citizens  resorting  to  Siam.  Both  the  English  and 
American  Eiia'o^’s  suggested  tlie  pro])riet.y  of  estalilisli- 
ing  Consuls  in  Siam  but  against  this  the  King  Avas 
obdurate. 

In  1828  A.D.  a Siamese  force  invaded  M"ieng  Chan. 
The  capital  of  that  state,  Avhich  had  been  looted  some 
forty  years  earlier  on  account  of  its  Bnimese  sympathies, 
AAus  noAv  found  to  be  intrigiung  again  Avith  the  AATstern 
kingdom  and  trying  to  foment  a general  rising  among 
the  Lao,  AAdierefore  its  entire  destruction  Avas  resolved 
upon.  The  resistance  offered  to  the  Siamese  arms  aatis 
speedily  oA^ercome.  The  Chief  AA'as  ca])tnred  and. 


204 


SIAM 


after  the  city  had  been  reduced  to  a heap  of  smoking 
ruins,  was  brought  with  a large  number  of  prisoners 
to  Bangkok,  where  he  was  exposed  in^a  cage  to  the 
taunts  and  insults  of  the  populace  until  death 
terminated  his  sufferings.  Wieng  Chan  did  not 
recover  from  this  blow.  The  state  was  broken  up 
and  the  jungle  has  long  overgrown  the  site  of  the 
ancient  capital. 

About  1844  A.D.  Kambodian  i^olitics  were  again  to 
the  fore.  Kambodia  had  shown  no  more  alacrity  in 
paying  tribute  to  Annam  than  to  Siam.  Hence  frequent 
commotions  and  continual  fleeings  of  Kambodian 
notabilities  to  Siam  to  escape  the  Annamese  ire.  On 
one  such  occasion  a child  named  Norodom,  a son  of 
the  King,  was  brought  to  Bangkok  where  he  was 
retained  and  educated  at  the  Siamese  court.  Some 
years  later,  on  the  death  of  the  king,  this  child,  now 
grown  almost  to  manhood  was  declared  by  Siam  to  be  the 
rightful  heir  to  the  throne  of  Kambodia.  He  crossed 
the  frontier  with  a Siamese  army,  gained  possession 
of  the  country  and,  notwithstanding  former  arrange- 
ments, j)laced  it  once  more  under  Siamese  protection. 

In  1851  A.D.  King  Phra  Nang  Klao  died  and  Prince 
Cliao  Fa  Mongkut  was  invited  l3y  the  people  to  take 
the  crown  which  he  should  have  inherited  before. 
At  the  age  of  forty-seven  therefore  the  Prince  left 
his  retirement  and  was  crowned  under  the  title  of 
Somdet  Phra  Paramindr  Maha  Mongkut,  his  younger 
l^rother  1:>eing  created  Uparach  or  Wang  Na.  The 
new  King  had  occu])ied  the  twenty-six  years  of  his 
monastic  seclusion  not  only  in  the  contemplation  of 
‘ The  Wheel  of  the  Law  ’ but  also  in  studying  the 
history  and  customs  of  his  country,  the  English 
language,  mechanics  and  other  sciences  then  almost 
unknown  in  Siam,  and  also  the  manners  and  systems 
of  government  obtaining  in  the  West.  On  his  acces- 


HISTORY 


205 


sion  therefore,  he  brought  to  bear  upon  the  conduct 
of  affairs,  a vei\y  unusual  degree  of  education  and 
enlightenment  which,  together  with  his  naturally  high 
intelligence  and  with  that  insight  into  the  actual 
condition  of  his  people  which  life  as  a mendicant 
monk  had  given  him,  soon  resulted  in  numerous 
reforms  all  tending  to  increase  the  popular  welfare. 

King  ]\Iaha  Mongkut  did  much  to  encourage  the 
growth  of  intercourse  with  the  outside  world  and  it 
was  during  his  reign  - that  the  relations  at  present 
existing  between  Siam  and  the  European  nations  were 
established.  Both  the  British  and  the  United  States 
Governments  had  some  time  previously  to  his  accession, 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  treaties  of  1826  and 
1833  A.D.  were  no  longer  sufficient  guarantee  for  their 
growing  interests  in  the  trade  of  Siam.  In  1850  a.d. 
England  had  sent  Sir  J.  Brooke  to  Bangkok  to  negotiate 
a more  elaborate  treaty  and  about  the  same  time  the 
United  States  deputed  Mr  Ballestier  to  Siam  Avith  a 
similar  object.  King  Phra  Kang  Klao  hoAA'ever  had 
received  the  envoys  Avith  scant  courtesy  and  had 
declined  to  alter  existing  relations  Avith  either  country. 
In  1855  A.D.  the  fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  Phra 
51aha  Mongkut,  Sir  John  BoAvring  arrived  in  Siam 
bearing  full  poAA'ers  from  the  Queen  to  negotiate  and, 
if  ]A0ssible,  to  sign  a neAV  treaty  betAAuen  Siam  and  Great 
Britain.  His  reception  aaus  A^ery  different  from  that 
accorded  to  Sir  J.  Brooke.  Negotiations  AA^ere  begun 
Avithout  delay  and  in  less  than  a month  after  his  arrival, 
during  AA'hich  short  s]>ace  of  time  he  had  coni])letely 
gained  the  personal  friendship  of  tlie  King,  a treaty 
Avas  executed  AAdiich  contained  man}-  A^ery  important 
conditions  and  AAdiich,  Ijy  introducing  the  extra- 
territorial system  Avas  destined  profoundly  to  affect 
the  internal  as  aatU  as  the  external  affairs  of  the 
country.  The  treaty  provided  for  the  appointment 


206 


SIAM 


of  a British  Consul  to  reside  in  Bangkok  and  for 
the  exercise  by  that  Officer  of  civil  and  criminal 
jurisdiction  over  all  British  subjects  in  Siam.  The 
said  snbjects,  thus  made  independent  of  the  Siamese 
Government,  and  answerable  for  their  actions  to  their 
consul  alone,  were  given  the  right  to  buy  or  rent 
land  within  a belt  of  territory  extending  from  four 
to  about  forty  miles  from  the  capital  in  all  directions. 
Import  and  export  duties  and  rates  of  land  revenue 
were  fixed  and  the  rights  of  British  merchants  to  travel 
and  trade  thronghont  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
land  were  secured. 

The  successful  negotiation  of  the  British  Treaty  drew 
the  immediate  attention  of  the  other  Powers.  Similar 
arrangements  were  made  with  France  and  with  the 
United  States  in  the  following  year,  with  Denmark,  and 
with  the  Hanseatic  Towns  in  1858  a.d.,  Portugal  in 
1859  A.D.,  Holland  in  1860  a.d.,  Prussia  in  1862  a.d., 
while  Sir  John  Bowring  was  commissioned  to  sign 
treaties  on  behalf  of  Siam  with  Belgium,  Italy,  and 
Norway  and  Sweden  in  1868  a.d.  Thus  King  Maha 
Mongkut,  who  found  on  his  accession  a condition  of 
sullen  unfriendliness  and  suspicious  reserve  prevailing 
toAvards  all  foreigners,  before  he  died  had  entered  into 
amicable  relations  Avith  most  of  the  PoAA^ers,  had  throAvn 
his  country  open  to  foreign  trade  and  intercourse,  and 
had  thereby  definitely  committed  it  to  a policy  of 
reform,  at  the  same  time  laying  the  sure  foundation  of 
its  present  prosperity. 

In  the  year  1863  a.d.,  Norodom,  AA'liom  Siam  had 
])laced  u])on  the  throne  of  Kambodia,  made  a treaty 
Avith  the  French,  noAv  masters  of  Annam,  in  AAffiich  he 
accepted  French  protection,  and,  true  to  the  traditions 
of  Further  India,  at  almost  the  same  time  entered  into 
an  exactly  similar  compact  AAuth  Siam.  Thus  both 
France  and  Siam  found  themselves  severall}’'  pledged  to 


PALACE  AT  PETCIIABURI. 
Limestone  hills  in  backs^roiind. 


. I 


J 


HISTORY 


207 


protect  Kambodia  against  any  possible  enemy  in  retnrn 
for  which  each  claimed  the  right  to  conduct  all  her 
foreign  policy  for  her.  The  situation  so  created  was 
absurd,  and  after  fonr  years  of  negotiation,  the  issue 
of  which  was  awaited  by  King  Norodom  with  composare, 
Siam  admitted  the  superior  rights  of  France  as  successor 
to  the  rulers  of  Annam,  cancelled  her  Kambodian  treaty 
of  1863  A.D.,  and  finally  abandoned  all  claim  to 
suzerainty  over  that  State. 

The  reign  of  King  Mafia  Mongknt  was  almost  barren 
of  military  incident.  The  embers  of  the  ancient 
traditional  fend  with  Burma  still  smouldered  on  the 
north-west  frontier,  and  an  occasional  bootless  raid  into 
the  Burmese  Shan  State  of  Keng  Tung  famied  them 
into  fitful  flame.  The  arts  of  peace  absorbed  the 
attention  of  the  King,  the  digging  of  canals,  the  con- 
struction of  roads,  ship-lmilding,  and  the  introduction 
of  printing,  and  the  elements  of  education  finding  more 
favour  in  his  eyes  than  the  vicissitudes  of  war.  His 
Xinlilic  life  was  given  up  to  improving  the  condition  of 
his  country,  and  his  private  leisure  was  chiefly  passed 
in  the  study  of  foreign  languages  and  in  dilettante 
pursuits.  His  favonilte  science,  astronomy,  was  in  fact 
the  cause  of  his  death,  for  an  exxiedition  to  tlie  heights 
of  Sam  Boi  Yot  on  the  east  coast  of  tlie  Gulf  of  Siam  to 
observe  an  eclijise  in  1868  a.d.,  gave  him  a chill  from 
the  effects  of  which  he  did  not  recover. 

His  late  Majesty  Somdet  Phra  Paramindr  Maha 
Chnlalonhorn,  succeeded  his  father  while  still  a minor, 
and  for  the  first  five  years  of  his  reign  the  country  was 
under  a regency.  During  that  time  the  King  was 
completing  his  education,  begun  by  an  English 
governess,  by  x)ersonal  stud}-  on  the  spot  of  the  methods 
of  government  obtaining  in  Java  and  India.  In  1873 
A.D.,  he  took  u])  the  reins  of  government  and  at  once 
began  a series  of  reforms  which  has  continued,  though 


208 


SIAM 


not  without  interruption,  to  the  j^resent  day,  affecting  in 
turn  every  institution  of  his  country  and  vastly  improv- 
ing the  condition  of  his  people.  The  abolition  of 
slavery,  the  establishment  of  efficient  Law  Courts, 
radical  changes  in  methods  of  revenue  and  rural 
administration,  the  spread  of  education,  reform  of  the 
conditions  of  military  service  and  the  construction  of 
railways  and  irrigation  works  are  amongst  the  most 
notable  changes  of  recent  years.  Improvements  in 
communications  and  the  appointment  of  trained  officials 
under  organised  control  in  place  of  former  ignorant 
provincial  Governors  and  Chieftains  of  diverse  races 
and  clans,  have  welded  the  once  loose  agglomeration  of 
doubtfully  loyal  feudatories  into  a nation  of  a homo- 
geneity be^'ond  the  dreams  of  any  former  ruler  of  Siam. 

The  way  of  reform  was,  however,  set  thick  with 
obstructions,  and  vast  were  the  labour  and  patience 
entailed  in  the  gradual  removal  thereof.  The  upper 
classes  who  profited  b}^  misrule  and  corruption,  did  not 
see  their  ancient  privileges  slipping  from  them  without 
strenuous,  if  secret,  opposition,  while  for  several  years 
the  work  of  reform  was  seriously  interrupted  by  the 
action  of  the  French,  whose  aggressive  attitude  at  one 
time  demanded  the  close  attention  of  the  King  and  his 
Ministers  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  matters.  Shortly 
after  the  retirement  of  Siam  from  Kambodia  in  favour 
of  France,  the  unofficial  advocates  of  French  colonial 
expansion  began  to  adA^ance  the  theory  that  the  Siamese 
]u-ovinces  east  of  the  riA^er  Mehkong  having  at  one  time 
formed  part  of  Annam,  should  be  restored  to  that 
kingdom,  noAv  a French  Protectorate.  This  claim  AA^as 
at  first  ridiculed  in  Bangkok  and  unsupported  in  Paris, 
l)ut  as  the  desire  for  a Great  Colonial  Empire  greAV  in 
France,  it  gained  adherents,  the  more  so  because  an 
additional  argument  AA^as  noAV  put  forAAm’d  that  the 
Mehkong,  as  one  of  the  future  trade  arteries  of  south- 


HISTORY 


209 


\Yest  China  must  at  all  costs  he  seized  hy  France.  At 
length  the  French  Government  became  convinced  that 
it  was  really  desirable  to  acquire  the  country  east  of  the 
Llehkong  and  the  ‘ incontestable  rights  of  Annam  ’ 
were  therefore  officially  notified  to  the  Siamese  Govern- 
ment. The  specious  arguments  of  the  French  were, 
lioweA^er,  quite  mistaken.  The  territory  in  question, 
a part  of  the  State  of  Wieng  Chan,  had  fallen  definitely 
into  the  hands  of  the  Siamese  as  the  result  of  the 
reduction  of  that  State  in  1824  a.d.,  and  any  Annamese 
rights  could  only  have  dated  from  before  the  conquest 
of  the  provinces  by  Wieng  Chan.  Moreover,  it  has 
now  l^eeii  clearly  proved  that  the  river  Mehkong  is 
useless  as  a means  of  communication  with  south-west 
China.  Siam  replied  to  French  demands  by  suggesting 
that  the  eastern  jirovinces  should  be  regarded  as  neutral 
territory  until  the  frontier  could  be  properly  delimited 
and  this  was  agreed  upon  Avith  the  inevitable  result 
that  either  side  shortl^y  began  to  accuse  the  other  of 
violating  the  comjiact.  Siam  suggested  arbitration 
AAdiich  France  declined,  and  in  1893  a.d.,  collisions 
occurred  lietAA^en  the  troops  of  the  rivals.  The  blood- 
shed Avhich  naturally  resulted,  France  called  murder  on 
the  ])art  of  the  Siamese.  A fleet  of  French  gunboats 
occupied  the  approaches  to  the  i\Ienani,  and  the 
immediate  eA^acuation  of  the  debated  territory,  an 
indemnity,  and  other  concessions  AA^ere  demanded  and 
AA'ere  ultimately  secured  by  a humiliating  treaty  dictated 
to,  and  perforce  accepted  liy  the  Siamese  Government 
at  Bangkok.  To  ensure  the  carrying  out  of  the 
provisions  of  this  treaty,  France  established  a military 
occupation  of  Cdiantaburi  in  the  south-east  of  Siam 
Avhich,  lioAA^eA^er,  continued  long  after  all  Siamese 
obligations  had  been  fulfilled.  Even  iioav  Siam  aaus  not 
alloAved  to  return  to  her  interrupted  lalxuirs  of  reform. 
The  relations  betAA'een  the  tAATA  countries  AA'ere  thoroughly 
0 


210 


SIAM 


bad,  and  gave  rise  to  difficulties  in  tlie  exercise  of 
French  extra-territorial  rights  which  continually 
threatened  further  complications  and  in  the  multi- 
plication of  which  Siam  beheld  a grave  menace  to  her 
national  existence.  Her  whole  energies  were  required 
to  prevent  the  occurrence  of  unfortunate  incidents,  but 
notwithstanding  her  efforts,  diplomatic  representations 
and  demands  for  inquiry,  for  explanations  and  for 
reparation,  accumulated  until  her  case  appeared  almost 
desperate.  Now,  however,  Great  Britain,  jealous  of  the 
approach  of  France  towards  the  eastern  borders  of  her 
Indian  Empire,  intervened  and  after  lengthy  negotiation 
concluded  an  agreement  with  France  in  1896  a.d., 
guaranteeing  the  autonomy  of  Siam,  and  thus  removing 
the  fear  of  imminent  annihilation.  Thereupon  Siam  was 
free  to  prosecute  her  reforms,  and  the  last  twelve  years 
have  witnessed  the  great  strides  by  which  the  country 
has  advanced  to  a high  level  of  civilisation. 

With  the  clearing  of  the  political  atmosphere  relations 
with  France  soon  began  to  improve.  In  1897  a.d.  King 
Chulalonkorn  spent  seven  months  travelling  in  Europe 
and  during  the  course  of  the  tour  Avas  AA^ell  received  in 
Paris.  In  1899  a.d.  a mission  Avas  sent  to  Saigon,  the 
capital  of  Erench  Indo-China,  in  return  for  AAdiich 
compliment  the  Governor-General  of  the  colony  visited 
Bangkok  A\diere  he  Avas  royally  entertained.  Thereafter 
negotiations  AA^ere  opened  Avith  a vieAv  to  the  removal  of 
all  difficulties  tending  to  ]AreA^ent  the  estal^lishment  of 
permanent  good  relations,  and  these,  after  one  or  tAA*o 
abortive  efforts,  led  to  a treaty  AAdiich  aaus  signed  in  1904, 
by  virtue  of  AAdiich  Siam,  in  return  for  certain  territorial 
concessions,  obtained  a mitigation  of  many  of  the  AA'orst 
evils  of  extra-territoriality  and  the  AAdthdraAAul  of  the 
Erench  garrison  from  Chantaburi.  Since  then  relations 
Avith  Fnince  liaA^e  continued  to  inipiwe  and  in  1907 
a further  agreement  AA-as  negotiated,  Siam  restoring  to 


HISTORY 


211 


Kambodia  the  province  of  Plira  Tabong  (Battambong) 
annexed  in  1809,  receiving  back  a part  of  the  territory 
surrendered  in  1904,  and,  a matter  of  far  greater 
importance  than  these  exchanges  of  territory,  obtaining 
a recognition  of  Siamese  jurisdiction  over  Asiatic  French 
subjects.  This  last,  as  a tribute  from  a once  bitterly 
hostile  critic,  to  the  value  of  recent  Siamese  reforms  and 
as  a lightening  of  the  burden  of  extra-territoriality,  noAv 
becoming  intolerable,  is  an  achievement  of  which  Siam 
has  every  reason  to  be  proud,  but  it  cannot  be  forgotten 
that  since  the  appearance  of  France  upon  her  frontier 
she  has  been  shorn  of  her  eastern  territory  to  the  extent 
of  some  90,000  scpiare  miles. 

The  tril)esmen  of  mixed  Mon-Annam  and  Negrito 
stock,  who  inhabited  the  Malay  Peninsula  in  early  times, 
were  j^i’obably  regarded  by  the  ancient  Ivambodians  as 
forming  a part  of  their  eni])ire.  Later  on  as  dependents 
of  Ligor  the  same  would  become,  in  some  sort,  the 
subjects  of  Sukliothai-Sawankalok.  There  are  indica- 
tions in  Malay  history  that  the  enemy  who  confronted 
that  first  Malay  invasion  of  the  peninsula  from  the 
islands  to  the  south,  about  lltHJ  a.d.,  was  raised  amongst 
the  surrounding  inhabitants  by  the  orders  of  a northern 
Poorer,  somewhat  indefinitely  translated  Siam,  which 
seems  to  have  lieen  the  term  applied  1)}^  the  Malays  to 
the  people  of  Siam  even  before  these  latter  became 
‘ Thai.’  The  rise  of  jfalacca  and  the  subsequent  int]-o- 
duction  of  Mohamedanism  early  enabled  the  southern 
parts  of  the  pen  insula  to  establish  a ]:)ractical  independence 
and  as  Mohamedan  settlements  were  gradually  effected 
along  the  coasts  and  u])  the  main  rivers  of  the  peninsula 
the  power  of  Siam  was  weakened  and  broken  through- 
out. Thus,  when  early  in  the  19th  centiiiy  the  British, 
following  in  the  footsteps  of  Malays,  Portuguese  and 
Dutch,  set  foot  on  the  soil  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  Siam 
held  the  north,  claimed  the  middle  and  had  finally 


212 


SIAM 


relinquished  the  south  hut  had  uo  definite  frontier. 
Subsequent  extension  of  British  influence  removed  the 
last  traces  of  Siamese  authority  in  some  of  the  middle 
Malay  States,  but  still  no  properly  defined  frontier 
existed  until  1898,  when  a line  was  agreed  upon  which 
definitely  separated  the  Siamese  States  from  those  in 
which  British  influence  was  paramount.  Finally,  in 
1907,  Siam,  with  a view  to  obtaining  a modification  of 
the  extra-territorial  rights  of  British  subjects  within 
her  borders,  opened  negotiations  with  Great  Britain, 
offering  as  her  part  of  the  bargain,  to  withdraw  her 
southern  frontier  still  further  northward  and  to  surrender 
to  British  protection  her  three  largest  Malay  De- 
pendencies, comprising  an  area  of  about  15,000  square 
miles  and  a population  not  far  short  of  one  million. 
Xegotiations  continued  for  almost  two  years,  at  the  end 
of  which  period  a treat}"  was  signed  and  ratified 
(15th  Jul}q  1909),  by  virtue  of  which,  in  return  for 
the  above  territory,  Great  Britain  abolished  her  Courts 
in  Siam  and  placed  both  her  European  and  Asiatic 
subjects,  with  certain  safeguards  for  their  just  treat- 
ment, under  the  laws  of  Siam  and  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Siamese  Courts.  Certain  British  claims  to  a right 
of  interference  with  the  government  of  the  whole  of 
Southern  Siam,  which  had  been  maintained  for  some 
years,  were  also  withdrawn  and,  in  order  that  Siam 
may  without  loss  of  time  develoji  what  remains  to  her 
of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  a loan  of  four  million  sterling 
was  made  to  her  by  the  Federal  Government  of  the 
British  Malay  States,  the  total  sum  to  be  expended  in 
rai  I way  construction. 

Criticism  of  the  treaty  was  practically  absent  before 
it  Avas  ratified,  though  its  general  form  was  known  at 
a comparatively  early  stage  of  the  negotiations  while 
its  details  were  oflicially  ])ublished  a month  before 
ratification.  Afterwards,  however,  when  too  late  to 


H.M.  THE  LATE  KING  OF  SE\^^ 


vf: -v. 


HISTORY 


213 


serve  any  useful  purpose,  partizans  of  both  sides 
appeared  and  explained  at  some  length  how  each  had 
got  the  worst  of  the  bargain.  Time  alone,  hoAvever, 
can  fully  prove  the  advantages  and  disadA^'antages  of 
the  measure  but  in  the  meanwhile  it  is  at  least  eAudent 
that  Siam  has  thereby  gained  a long  step  foiuvard 
toAvards  that  place  in  the  ranks  of  the  Avorld’s 
nations  to  AA-hich  every  right-feeling  country  must 
aspire. 

Thus.  Avith  this  last  treaty  accomplished,  the  Middle 
Country  stands  Avell  Avith  both  her  European  neigh- 
bours and,  at  a heavy  cost  in  territory  it  is  true,  has 
obtained  from  them  a tangible  recognition  of  her 
advance  toAATards  good  goA^ernment,  in  Avhich  recognition 
they  Avill  doubtless  at  no  distant  dain  be  folio AA^ed  by 
the  other  PoAA^ers. 

On  the  23rd  October,  1910,  to  the  consternation  and 
profound  sorroAV  of  the  AAdiole  Siamese  nation.  His 
Majesty  King  Chulalongkorn  died  after  a A^eiy  lirief 
illness.  Though  his  age  aa^rs  only  57  he  had  occujiied 
the  throne  for  42  years,  during  AAdiich  period  he  led 
his  people  from  an  ensla\"ed  and  miserable  condition  to 
one  of  freedom  and  comparative  enlightenment  and 
guided  his  kingdom  through  many  perils,  to  a position 
Avhere  it  has  receiA^ed  the  recognition  and  encourage- 
ment of  the  Avorld.  His  Majesty  displayed  a devotion 
and  a perseverance  in  the  seiwice  of  his  country  sucli 
as  haA’e  ncA^er  liefore  been  seen  in  the  despotic  ruler  of 
an  Oriental  state,  and  it  is  probable  that  his  constant 
anxiety  for  the  public  Avelfare  shortened  his  life. 

At  a meeting  of  the  Council  of  Ministers,  held 
immediately  after  his  death,  the  Crown  Prince  H.R.II. 
]\Iaha  VajiraA'udh  aatts  proclaimed  king,  the  absence 
of  all  opposition  or  demur  to  the  late  soA^ereign’s  AA'islg 
proving  the  Avisdom  of  the  Lrav  of  Succession  of  1887. 

(See  Appendix  IV,  p.  60'J.) 


214 


SIAM 


Social  Organization 

His  Majesty  King  Mongknt  (1851-1868),  thougli  he 
passed  a great  part  of  his  life  in  the  celibacy  of  the 
monkhood,  had  a large  family  after  he  ascended  to  the 
throne.  Of  considerable  intellectual  attainments  him- 
self, he  devoted  much  thought  to  the  education  of  his 
sons  and  though  he  died  before  any  of  them  had  fully 
grown  to  manhood,  their  instruction,  continued  under 
the  auspices  of  their  brother  who  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  was  thoroughly  carried  out,  with  the  result  that 
on  reaching  man’s  estate  many  of  them  were  well  fitted 
to  share  in  the  duties  of  government,  they  being  in  fact 
the  best  educated  family  in  the  kingdom. 

Upon  the  education  of  the  young  Prince  Chulalong- 
korn,  destined  to  succeed  him.  King  Maha  Mongknt 
l)estowed  especial  care.  At  an  early  age  he  was  pro- 
vided with  an  English  governess  to  whose  intelligent 
nse  of  her  opportunities  the  Siamese  people  doubtless 
owe  some  part  of  the  immense  improvement  in  their 
condition  brought  about  during  the  reign  which  has 
just  ended.  By  this  arrangement  the  Prince  was 
secluded  from  such  court  influences  as  might  have 
proved  injurious  in  the  formation  of  his  character, 
with  the  result  that  when  his  royal  father  died  and  when, 
at  the  early  age  of  fifteen  years,  lie  was  called  upon  to 
ascend  the  throne,  he  did  so  in  the  possession  of  a 
sound,  if  elementary,  education  and  with  a perception 
of  the  duties  of  his  i)osition  absolutely  unique  in  the 
history  of  his  country 

The  years  of  his  minority  were  passed  by  the  young 
King  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  in  the  consideration 
of  the  condition  of  his  native  land  and  of  the  methods 
of  government  obtaining  in  neighbouring  countries. 
He  visited  Java  where  the,  in  many  ways  admirable, 
Dutch  system  of  colonial  administration  was  explained 


SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION  215 


to  him  in  all  its  details  and  he  went  to  Calcutta  to  study 
on  the  spot  the  working  of  that  curious  medley  of 
straightforwardness  and  paradox,  the  government  of 
British  India.  Shortly  after  his  return  from  foreign 
travel  he  assumed  the  full  responsibilities  of  govern- 
ment and  inaugurated  the  series  of  reforms  of  which 
the  end  is  not  yet. 

In  accordance  with  the  usuage  of  his  country,  King 
Chulalongkorn  was  married  very  early  in  life  and 
before  he  had  reached  the  age  of  five  and  twenty,  had 
a numerous  family  already  growing  up  round  him,  a 
family  which  increased  subsequently  until  it  assumed 
its  present  proportions.  His  Majesty  bestowed  a care 
upon  the  education  of  his  children  even  greater  than 
his  father  had  done.  Tutors  and  governesses,  both 
Siamese  and  English,  w^ere  engaged  for  them  while  they 
were  very  young  and  the  princes  as  they  grew  older 
were  sent  to  school  in  Europe.  At  first  they  all  went 
to  England  but  latterly  some  were  sent  to  Germany, 
Russia,  and  other  countries.  In  England  they  usually 
started  at  a public  school  and  from  there  went  on  either 
to  one  of  the  universities  or  to  some  technical  in- 
stitution where  they  coidd  receive  instruction  in 
the  particular  subject  selected  for  each  one  as  his 
speciality.  Guided  by  a little  pamphlet  of  warning  and 
counsel  written  by  the  King,  a model  of  what  a 
father’s  advice  to  his  sons  should  be,  the  princes  nearly 
all  did  extraordinarily  well.  Law,  engineering,  agri- 
culture are  some  of  the  subjects  in  which  they  have 
specialised  while  several  of  them,  after  passing  success- 
ful examinations,  entered  the  British,  German  and 
Danish  armies  and  the  British  navy  and  haA^e  thus 
gained  experience  in  the  different  branches  of  the 
profession  of  arms.  Many  of  them  neAV  occupy  high 
positions  in  the  gOA^ernment  services. 

In  the  year  1887  a very  ancient  laAv  AA^as  resuscitated 


216 


SIAM 


which  provided  for  the  appointment  of  an  heir-apparent 
to  the  throne,  or  Crown  Prince,  by  each  sovereign 
during  his  reign  and  thus  fixed  the  succession  which 
bad  for  some  centuries  been  a matter  of  mucli  ambiguity 
and  a perennial  source  of  danger  to  the  public 
tranquillity.  The  first  prince  to  occupy  this  exalted 
position  unfortunately  died  in  1895,  and  was  succeeded 
by  a half-brother,  now  His  Majesty  Mafia  Vajiravudh, 
at  that  time  a boy  pursuing  his  education  in  England, 
who  returned  to  Siam  in  1902.  From  that  time  onward 
he  filled  the  role  of  Second  Personage  in  the  State,  until  the 
much-lamented  death  of  his  father  called  him  to  assume 
the  dignities  and  grave  responsibilities  of  the  throne. 

There  are  many  sa^dngs  current  amongst  foreigners 
illustrative  of  the  large  number  of  princes  in  Siam 
and  the  royal  family  is  certainly  a very  large  one. 
The  title  ‘ Prince,’  applying  collectively  to  all  its 
members,  has  no  parallel  in  Siamese  except  perhaps 
in  the  term  Chao  Nai  meaning  ‘ Chief,’  and  only 
employed  to  express  colloquially  a ‘Royalty.’  The 
titles  of  the  individuals  are  many,  and  by  them  the 
actual  rank  of  the  holders  is  at  once  distinguishable. 
The  sons  and  daughters  of  the  king  and  of  the  queens 
are  born  with  the  title  Somdet  Chao  Fa  while  those 
of  the  king  and  of  ladies  who  are  not  queens  are 
Phra  Ong  Chao.  The  children  of  Chao  Fa  and  Phi^a 
OngChao  are  Mom  Chao,  their  children  being  Mom  Raeha 
Wongs,  the  next  generation  Mom  Luang  and  the  next 
are  without  title  of  any  sort. 

Princes  of  the  rank  of  Chao  Fa  and  Phra  Ong  Chao, 
on  attaining  manhood  may  be  given  official  rank  as 
Krom  Phaya,  From  Phra,  From  Luang,  From  Fhun 
and  From  Mun,  of  which  the  first  is  the  highest. 

Formerly  there  was  very  seldom  a holder  of  the  titles 
From  Phaya  and  From  Phra,  while  ol  the  other  three 
there  were  not  more  than  four  of  each  in  existence  at 


SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION  217 


one  time,  the  twelve  princes  so  distinguished,  and 
no  others  occupying  official  positions  in  the  king’s 
service.  Now,  however,  things  are  different,  there  being 
at  present  two  Krom  Phaya,  four  Krom  Pliva,  seven 
Krom  Luang,  eight  Krom  Khun,  twelve  Krom  Mun  and 
only  four  Plira  Ong  Chao,  the  junior  sons  of  the  late 
king,  who  hold  no  other  title,  while  moreover  many 
other  members  of  the  roj^al  family  occupy  positions 
under  Government  in  the  military  and  civil  services 
which  by  reason  of  their  superior  education,  they  usually 
fill  with  distinction  and  success. 

Those  who  are  born  Mom  Chao  do  not  as  a rule 
receive  any  other  title  but  very  occasionally  an 
individual  from  among  these  may  be  created  Plira 
Ong  Chao.  The  lower  grades  hardly  count  as  royalties 
and  frecjuently  dro]>  their  titles  or  exchange  them  for 
those  attached  to  ordinary  official  positions  usually 
filled  by  persons  who  are  not  royal. 

By  far  the  most  important  factor  in  the  social 
organisation  of  Siam  is  the  absolutism  of  the  monarchy, 
an  absolutism  which,  though  outwardly  modified  by 
the  constitution  decreed  in  1874,  and  veiled  behind 
that  consideration  for  his  subjects  Avhich  is  His  Majesty’s 
chief  concern  as  it  was  always  that  of  his  father,  is  as 
complete  in  spirit  to-day  as  it  was  at  the  darkest  period 
of  tyrannical  oppression  which  the  nation  has  eA^er 
endured.  The  monarchy  demands  noAV,  as  it  has 
always  done,  the  most  complete  submission  of  the 
entire  people  not  only  to  every  decree  issued  by  the 
king  but  in  theory  to  his  lightest  Avhim  or  caprice,  and 
the  hereditary  instincts  of  the  race  prompt  it  to  render 
such  obedience  without  question  and  even  without 
resentment,  no  matter  what  sufferings  such  obedience 
may  entail.  This  state  of  affairs  don  btless  had  its  origin 
in  the  fact  that  the  kings  of  the  remote  j)ast  found 
their  greatest  safety  in  exciting  the  fears  of  their 


218 


SIAM 


subjects,  any  show  of  more  gentle  methods  being 
almost  invariably  taken  for  a sign  of  weakness  and 
as  a signal  for  unrest  and  rebellion.  Writing  of 

Siam  at  the  end  of  the  17th  century  de  la  Loubere 
cites  instances  of  the  extraordinary  cruelties  practised 
by  the  king  for  the  sole  purpose  of  instilling  fear 
into  the  hearts  of  his  people,  and  mentions  also  the 
incapacity  of  the  people  themselves  to  imagine  a 
stable  government  based  upon  any  other  foundation. 
It  is  only  natural  that  out  of  this  habit  of  fear  and 

obedience  so  carefully  fostered,  a profound  national 

reverence  for  all  authority  should  have  grown  up, 

and  that,  although  in  the  actual  presence  of  the 

sovereign  all  persons  were  equally  of  no  account,  a many- 
graded  social  organisation  should  have  been  evolved. 
There  was  no  such  thing  as  an  liereditaiy  nobility 
in  the  land,  even  the  descendants  of  Majesty  becoming 
merged  in  the  people  at  the  fifth  generation,  but  those 
a]:>out  the  Court  and  officials  of  the  Government,  from 
the  highest  to  the  lowest  grades,  held  titles  by  virtue 
of  their  offices  and  constituted  a sort  of  aristocracy, 
Irom  which,  however,  the}^  could  at  any  moment  be 
expelled  at  the  royal  pleasure.  Any  person  could 
aspire  to  the  highest  official  dignity  but  it  was  usual 
for  the  sons  of  those  who  had  held  high  rank  to  be 
selected  for  preferment.  TJie  members  of  this  society, 
while  tendering  the  utmost  respect  and  obedience 
to  those  above  them,  exacted  an  equal  consideration 
from  all  those  below,  and  there  thus  existed  a sort 
of  social  j)yramid  round  the  base  of  which  knelt  a 
submissive  populace  while  upon  its  slippery  sides 
a throng  of  anxious  courtiers  precariously  maintained 
itself,  each  individual  engaged  in  rendering  homage 
to  those  above  him  and  to  the  king  at  the  apex  of  all. 

The  entire  nation  including  the  official  nobility 
and  the  lower  orders  was  divided  into  two  parts,  the 


SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION  219 


leaders  and  high  officials  of  Avhich  occupied  places 
at  court  on  the  right  or  left  of  the  throne  respectii^ely. 
One  section  included  all  the  military  forces  and  the 
other  all  the  civilian  officers  and  their  dependents. 
There  was  also  a queen  of  the  riglit  and  a queen  of 
the  left.  Those  who  occupied  the  right  side  of  the 
audience  chamber,  to  the  left  of  the  king  seated 
opposite  them,  Avere  called  Officials  of  the  Right.  The 
others  Avere  called  the  Officials  of  the  Left.  The  right 
Avas  considered  the  more  honourable  side  and  where 
persons  of  equal  rank  AA^ere  concerned  those  of  the 
right  took  precedence. 

The  highest  persons  after  the  princes  Avere  the 
Gliief  Ministers  of  the  right  and  left.  In  close  attend- 
ance on  the  king  AA'ere  the  members  of  the  corps  of 
Royal  Pages  or  Mahatlek,  recuited  from  the  families 
of  the  high  officials  and  usually  marked  out  for 
preferment  unless  they  should  proA^e  uiiAvorthy.  The 
numerous  functions  of  the  court  Avere  attended  by 
croAvds  of  titled  officials  of  all  grades  but,  apart  from 
these  occasions,  there  aa^s  little  social  intercourse 
amongst  them  since  a social  disposition  and  any 
reputation  for  the  cultiAmtion  of  a Avide  circle  of  friends, 
infallibly  brought  upon  the  person  so  inclined,  the 
jealousy  and  dislike  of  the  king.  A noticeable  trait 
of  character  AA^as  the  merciless  snubbing  and  ostracising 
by  the  Avhole  community  of  any  indiAudual  so  unfor- 
tunate as  to  incur  the  sovereign’s  displeasure. 

By  very  ancient  custom,  once  common  to  all  Further 
India  and  to  parts  of  India  and  Cdiina  also,  not  only 
Avas  all  land  in  the  kingdom  the  actual  property  of 
the  croAAUi  but  every  human  being  liAong  Avithin  the 
frontiers  of  the  state  Avas  considered  a mere  chattel 
of  the  king  Avho  had  absolute  right  to  dispose  of 
his  person,  his  property  or  his  life  as  might  seem 
best  to  him.  Long  ago,  AAdien  communities  Avere 


220 


SIAM 


small,  the  ruler  exercised  his  right  by  demanding 
personal  service  from  each  man  for  a certain  part  of 
each  year.  Later  when  the  small  independent  clans 
grew  and  became  united  into  settled  kingdoms,  various 
modifications  were  introduced  for  the  exploiting  of 
this  great  reserve  of  labour  to  the  better  advantage 
and  profit  of  the  crown,  and  in  Siam  such  modifications 
took  the  form  of  a complicated  division  of  the  people 
into  Lek  or  departments  of  the  public  service. 

A considerable  part  of  the  nation  was  comprised  in 
the  Lek  Sui,  the  members  of  which  were  exempted 
from  actual  personal  service  but  were  obliged  to  con- 
tribute a part  of  the  produce  of  their  private  labour  for 
the  support  of  royalty,  such  contribution  taking  the  form 
of  timber,  lime,  woodoil,  beeswax,  eaglewood,  resin,  as 
w^ell  as  rice,  pepper,  and  all  kinds  of  agricultural 
produce  which,  at  the  time  when  the  Sovereign  mono- 
polised the  export  trade  of  the  country,  was  stored  in 
great  warehouses  pending  sale  to  foreign  traders  or 
export  in  the  king’s  ships.  The  wealthier  members  of 
the  Lek  Siii  could  howe’^^er  substitute  money  for  produce 
and  as  time  passed  and  the  trading  monopolies  came  to 
1)6  farmed  out  this  form  of  payment  became  ver}-  general. 

The  majority  of  the  x)eoi)le,  however,  belonged  to  the 
division  from  which  actual  service  or  corvee  labour  was 
required,  the  division  which  had  originally  included  the 
whole  adult  male  x)ox)ulation.  These  were  called  Prai, 
a word  which  has  probably  the  same  origin  as  ‘ Paik  ’ 
by  which,  according  to  Dr  Grierson,  the  Ahoms  of  Assam, 
a brancli  of  the  Lao-Tai  and  therefore  relations  of  the 
Siamese,  designated  the  individuals  forming  the  rank 
and  file  of  their  corvee  system,  which  veiy  closely 
resembled  tliat  of  Siam.  The  sons  of  Prai  were  them- 
selves Prai  and  the  force  was  further  recuited  by  the 
addition  of  war  captives,  criminals  from  the  other  Lek 
and  the  slaves  and  servants  of  deceased  princes  and 


SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION  221 


nobles,  who  all  became  Prai  on  the  death  of  their 
master.  From  the  Prai  the  standing  army,  the  Palace 
Guards,  the  sailors  of  the  Royal  Favy  and  menials  of 
other  public  services  were  drawn,  while  it  also  supplied 
labour  for  all  manner  of  public  works.  The  fee  payable 
l3y  Prai  for  exemption  from  service  was  17  ticals  per 
,year  and  as  few  of  tlie  people  could  pay  this  sum  there 
were  usually  many  more  workmen  available  than  the 
king  had  aii}’  use  for.  The  Prai  were  collected  in 
parties  or  Wen  at  different  centres  all  over  the  country 
where,  under  the  sup»ervision  of  an  official,  they  were 
put  to  such  work  as  could  be  devised  in  the  interests  of 
the  state.  It  is  almost  needless  to  sa}^  that  their  labours 
were,  howcA^er,  more  commonly  in  the  interests  of  their 
supervisors.  The  Prai  Avere  exempted  from  the  pay- 
ment of  ordinary  revenue  up  to  a limit  of  6 ticals.  No 
esca]ie  from  the  condition  of  Prai  Avas  possible,  the 
status  being  hereditary.  In  time  of  Avar  all  Lek, 
AAdiether  Prai  or  Sui  Avere  liable  for  military  seiwice. 

A great  many  further  modifications  AA^ere  by  degrees 
Inmight  to  affect  this  system.  Thus  large  numbers  of 
people  AA'ere  allotted  to  the  different  nieml^ers  of  the 
royal  family  and  to  the  high  officers  of  state,  the  reci])ient 
undertaking  to  be  responsible  to  the  king  for  ])ayments 
made  by  them  and,  in  the  case  of  Pr-ai,  for  their  Avork, 
an  arrangement  AAdiich  naturally  led  to  much  confusion. 
Exemptions,  jiartial  or  complete,  from  liabilities  to  the 
king  AA^ere  also  alloAved  to  the  Prai  and  Siii  of  many  of 
the  princes  and  officials,  another  custom  which  conduced 
to  many  irregularities.  No  machinery  existed  for  the 
effectiA’e  control  of  the  system,  the  officials  entrusted 
Avith  its  management  Avere  paid  only  a small  retaining 
fee  and  consequently  deriA^ed  the  greater  part  of  their 
income  from  the  diversion  of  the  labour  or  money  of 
the  people  to  their  oAvn  ])rivate  uses  and  thus,  Avhile  the 
country  continued  to  suffer  all  the  incoiiA^eniences  and 


222 


SIAM 


hardships  of  the  system,  the  benefit  accruing  to  the 
Crown  therefrom  grew  continually  less.  It  was  cus- 
tomary to  tatoo  the  arms  of  all  Prai  and  Sui  as  soon  as 
the  individuals  were  old  enough  to  render  service  and 
each  Lek  had  its  own  peculiar  mark  by  which  its 
members  were  distinguishable.  Aii}^  youth  found  with- 
out a mark  could  be  forced  to  become  Prai,  no  matter 
what  Lek  his  father  belonged  to,  unless  he  were  specially 
exempted.  All  holders  of  official  positions,  with  their 
families  were  exempt  from  Lek. 

At  the  very  bottom  of  the  social  system  stood  the 
slaves,  consisting  of  such  war  captives  as  were  given 
aAvay  by  the  king  instead  of  being  made  ordinary  Prai ; 
of  those  who,  as  children,  had  been  sold  out  and  out  by 
their  parents,  a fairly  numerous  class  ; and  of  debt 
slaves  or  persons  who  had  pawned  themselves  and 
perhaps  also  their  families  for  the  loan  of  a sum  of 
money  down.  The  first  two  were  l^ound  for  ever,  the}^ 
and  their  children,  but  debt  slaves  could  obtain  release 
on  repayment  of  the  sum  advanced.  For  permanent 
slaves  there  was  a fixed  tariff  of  prices  at  which  they 
could  l^e  sold  at  any  time  and  debt  slaves  could  always 
be  transferred  to  aii}^  person  willing  to  pay  the  price 
for  which  they  had  beeu  jiiawned.  The  owners  of  debt 
slaves  who  also  belonged  to  the  Prai  or  Sui,  were 
responsible  to  the  Crown  for  the  labour  or  money  due 
from  them.  The  condition  of  slavery  was  not  hard 
])rovided  the  slaves  were  fairly  tractable  and  did  not 
try  to  run  away.  They  were  rarely  sold  without  their 
own  consent  and  the  young  slave  children,  brought  u]) 
in  the  family  to  Avhich  they  belonged,  were  usually 
treated  Avith  much  the  same  consideration  as  was  the 
lot  of  the  free  children  of  the  household.  Moreover  if 
a debt  sla\^e  Avere  unhaj)])y  he  could  transfer  himself  to 
another  master  by  prevailing  upon  the  latter  to  pa^;'  the 
sum  in  Avliich  he  stood  indebted. 


SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION  223 


Such  was  the  organisation  of  society  in  Siam  when 
King  Chiilalonkorn  took  up  the  reins  of  government, 
an  organisation  which  in  spite  of  the  efforts  and  con- 
stantly expressed  desires  of  his  predecessor,  perpetuated 
many  of  the  most  obnoxious  customs  of  the  immemorial 
East,  and  which  it  was  now  evident  must  either  undergo 
early  and  far-reaching  alteration  or  bring  the  whole 
national  edifice  to  ruin.  The  young  King,  bearing  in 
mind  the  wishes  and  the  precepts  of  his  father,  deter- 
mined to  effect  the  necessary  changes,  but  he  also 
realised  that  the  most  powerful  of  his  subjects  were 
strongly  interested  in  the  jireservation  of  the  old  order, 
by  which  they  benefitted,  greatly  at  the  expense  of  the 
lower  classes,  and  that  any  sudden  and  drastic  change 
must  infallibly  alienate  from  him  all  those  whose  co- 
operation would  be  alisolutely  necessary  if  he  was 
to  accomplish  anything  towards  the  regeneration  of  his 
country. 

He  was  further  aware  that  amongst  the  women  of  the 
princely  and  official  classes  there  existed  an  intensely 
conservative  spirit  which  would  watch  with  jealousy 
and  op])Ose  to  the  utmost,  any  interference , ivith  the 
privileges  to  which  they  considered  themselves  entitled. 
Wliile,  therefore,  the  alisolute  necessit}^  for  action  was 
plain,  he  felt  that  it  Avas  also  necessary  to  moA^e  A\dth 
much  circumspection,  the  more  so  as  he  had  no  inten- 
tion of  ruling  his  kingdom  liy  the  old  method  of 
fear-inspiring  tyranny  l^ut  had  early  determined  that 
his  reign  should  be  marked  by  the  groAvth  of  an 
affection  and  a A^oluntary  feeling  of  loyalty  toAAnrds  the 
sovereign,  Avhicli  had  hitherto  found  little  or  no  j)lace 
in  the  domestic  politics  of  the  state.  Some  years  Avere 
required  to  persuade  the  small  grou])  of  more  intelligent 
men  Avho  stood  near  the  tlirone  and  on  Avhoin  he  must 
rely  for  assistance  in  carrying  out  his  Avishes,  that 
AvhateA^er  reforms  might  be  undertaken  it  AA'as  no  ]>art 


224 


SIAM 


of  His  Majesty’s  j)olicy  to  cause  a wholesale  introductiou 
of  western  customs  but  that  his  ambition  was  to  endow 
his  people  with  such  enlightenment  as  should  prove 
conducive  to  their  welfare  while  at  the  same  time 
preserving  all  Siamese  customs  which  were  not  incom- 
patible with  improvement  in  social  conditions.  It  may 
here  be  said  that  His  late  Majesty  showed  all  through 
his  reign,  and  long  ago  convinced  his  people  of  the  fact, 
that  he  was  passionately  attached  to  the  traditions  of  his 
country,  that  his  desire  was  only  to  adopt  such  foreign 
customs  as  might  contribute  to  the  happiness  and 
material  welfare  of  his  people  and  that  the  very  last 
thing  he  desired  was  to  see  the  nation  divest  itself  of  its 
ideals  in  favour  of  that  veneer  of  so-called  civilisation 
which  has  upset  the  national  equilibrium  and  subverted 
the  morals  of  more  than  one  Eastern  race. 

The  first  step  in  the  direction  of  social  reorganisation 
was  a decree  modifying  the  ancient  slavery  laws  and 
providing  that  children  of  enslaved  parents  should, 
under  certain  circumstances,  be  free.  When  the  shock 
which  this  move  caused  to  the  privileged  classes  had 
subsided,  it  Avas  folloAA^ed  by  another  laAV  prohibiting 
the  sale  of  children,  restricting  the  making  of  debt 
slaves,  and  other  decrees  affecting  this  matter  aj^peared 
at  intervals  all  through  the  reign  until  finally,  in  1905, 
it  A\ns  ordered  that  all  children  AAuthout  exception  born 
of  enslaved  parents  should  l^e  free,  that  no  person  could 
under  any  circumstances  become  a slave  in  future  and 
that  the  price  of  all  debt-slaves  should  be  reduced  auto- 
matically by  4 ticals  per  month  until  it  should  be  all 
Avorked  off,  Avhen  the  slaA^e  should  be  free.  Meamvliile 
the  Lek  received  attention  and  although  any  amelioration 
of  the  condition  of  Prai  and  Sui  struck  hard  at  the 
priAuleges  of  the  most  influential  class,  Avarious  slight 
innoAaitions  AA’-ere  made  tending  to  lighten  the  corvee 
incubus  and  to  restore  to  the  king  and  the  gOA^ernment 


SOCIAL  ORGANISATION 


225 


the  control  of  the  great  nnmbers  of  Prai  and  Sui  who 
had  been  qnietly  absorbed  by  private  individuals.  At 
length  in  1897,  the  price  of  exemption  from  service  for 
Prai  was  reduced  from  17  ticals  a year  to  six  ticals,  the 
amount  payable  by  Sui  and  this  was  followed  by  the 
exemption  of  all  Lek  from  service  with  the  exception  of 
those  required  for  the  military  departments,  and  by  the 
institution  of  a poll-tax,  still,  however,  called  ka  racka 
kan  or  ‘ the  Price  of  tlie  Royal  Work,’  varying  from 
two  ticals  j)er  head  in  the  poorest  districts  to  six  ticals  per 
head  in  the  most  prosperous.  Finally  a military  law 
was  passed  which  did  away  with  the  military  corvee 
and  rendered  military  service  incumbent  on  the  whole 
manhood  of  the  nation. 

A far-reaching  social  reform  was  effected  when  it  was 
decreed  that  bodily  prostration  in  the  presence  of  the 
Sovereign,  always  hitherto  absolutely  insisted  upon,  no 
matter  what  the  rank  of  the  subject,  was  no  longer  to  be 
practised.  With  this  decree  disappeared  in  a great 
measure  the  physical  exhibition  of  profound  submission 
which  every  person  of  any  position  demanded  from  all 
those  below  him  in  social  status,  an  exhibition  which 
had  aroused  the  contempt  of  foreigners  and  which  was 
certainly  incompatil3le  with  the  aspiration  of  the  Siamese 
to  the  a])pellation  of  ‘ The  Free.’  A great  impetus  to 
social  intercourse  resulted  from  this  change  of  manners, 
for  the  abandonment  of  the  j)hysical  attitude  of  humility, 
(any  neglect  of  which  by  an  inferior  towards  a superior 
liad  formerly  been  considered  rudeness  and  presumption) 
by  enabling  persons  of  slightly  different  rank  to  meet 
on  a more  or  less  equal  footing,  naturally  led  to  an  easier 
interchange  of  ideas  and  sentiments,  though  superiority 
of  position  continues  to  be  fully  recognised  in  the  forms 
of  speech  and  in  other  little  ways. 

The  distrust  resulting  from  continual  fear  of  intrigue 
which  caused  former  rulers  to  look  askance  upon  any 


226 


SIAM 


development  of  social  intercourse,  lias  long  since  dis- 
apjieared  and  the  men  of  the  upper  classes  now  pass 
much  of  their  leisure  in  social  gatherings  and  at  clubs 
where  the  free  discussion  of  all  subjects  is  permitted. 
At  the  present  day  the  court  is  still,  however,  the  centre 
of  social  life  and  any  person  of  high  standing  who  may 
have  forfeited  the  privilege  of  appearing  at  the  official, 
religious,  or  social  court  functions  which  are  now  very 
numerous,  probably  soon  finds  himself  without  friends. 
The  Corps  of  Royal  Pages,  an  extremely  well-organised 
institution,  is  still  regarded  as  the  royal  road  to  advanc- 
ment.  After  many  changes  the  tradition  of  the  right  and 
left  services  survives  in  the  actual  positions  occupied  by 
the  high  officials  in  the  throne-room,  and  in  a few  of  the 
titles  of  those  whose  duties  keep  them  immediately  about 
the  person  of  Royalty,  but  elsewhere  the  distinction  has 
lost  its  originally  high  importance.* 

Several  orders  have  been  instituted  by  the  kings 
Maha  Mongkut,  and  Maha  Chulalongkorn  as  marks  of 
distinction  and  rewards  for  faithful  and  diligent  service 
to  the  Crown.  The  oldest  of  these  is  the  Most  Ancient 
Order  of  the  Nine  Gems,  first  conferred  by  King  Maha 
Mongkut  in  1851  a.d.  and  restricted  by  its  Statutes  to 
persons  of  the  Buddhist  religion.  The  next  was  the 
Most  Exalted  Order  of  the  AA^hite  Elephant,  founded  in 
1861  and  consisting  of  five  classes,  subsequently  extended 
by  statute  to  a special  liighest  degree,  conferred  only  on 
persons  of  royal  descent,  and  seven  classes,  the  insignia 
Ijeing  a star  and  badge  with  a white  elephant  on  a 
ground  of  dark  red  enamel,  red  riband  for  the  first  class 
and  red  with  green  and  yellow  edging  for  the  others. 

The  first  order  instituted  by  King  (fiiulalongkorn  was 
the  Most  Honourable  Order  of  the  (fi’own  of  Siam, 
founded  in  1861),  the  year  after  the  death  of  King  Maha 

* For  a description  of  the  ‘ Wild  Tiger  Scouts’  Corps,’  founded 
hy  His  Majesty  the  King  in  PJll,  see  Appendix  IV,  p.  609. 


SOCIAL  ORGANISATION  227 


Mongkiit.  This  contained  five  classes,  afterwards  ex- 
tended l3y  statute  to  seven.  The  star  and  badge  of  the 
insignia  contain  a Siamese  crown  on  a ground  of  dark 
blue  enamel,  the  riband  of  the  first  class  is  blue  and  that 
of  the  others  is  blue  with  red  and  green  edging.  At  the 
end  of  the  king’s  minority,  in  1873,  the  Most  Noble 
Order  of  Chula  Chom  Klao  was  founded.  The  star  of 
this  order  contains  His  late  Majesty’s  initials  and  the 
badge  his  effigy  enamelled  in  natural  colours,  on  a pink 
ground  ; the  riband  is  rose  colour.  The  order,  which 
has  three  classes,  is  restricted  to  Siamese  of  noble  family, 
but  foreigners  of  royal  or  noble  birth  may  be  enrolled  as 
honorary  members.  There  is  a branch  of  the  order  in  four 
classes  reserved  for  Siamese  ladies  of  high  station.  The 
Order  of  Chula  Chom  Ivlao  takes  precedence  of  the  Orders 
of  the  White  Elephant  and  the  Crown.  The  third  Order 
of  His  Majesty  King  Chulalongkorn  is  the  Most  Illustrious 
Order  of  the  House  of  Chakkri  which  was  instituted  in 
the  year  1882  and  takes  precedence  of  all  the  others. 
It  consists  of  one  class  only  and  is  restricted  to  princes 
and  princesses  of  the  royal  family  of  Siam,  foreign 
sovereigns  and  princes  being  admissible  as  honorary 
members.  The  riband  of  the  order  is  yellow. 

All  the  orders  are  highly  honoured  and  much  prized. 
The  whole  of  the  insignia  are  to  be  seen  in  the  ceiling 
decorations  of  the  royal  tein])le  of  Wat  Tepsurindr  in 
Bangkok.  The  White  Elejihant  and  the  Crown  are  the 
orders  usually  conferred  on  Eurojieans. 

There  are  signs  that  one  of  the  features  of  the  new 
reign  will  be  a change  in  the  position  of  women  of  the 
higher  class.  Whilst  the  ^voinen  of  the  lower  orders 
have  always  enjoyed  absolute  freedom,  appearing  in 
public  at  all  times  and  ])articipating  with  the  men  in 
all  the  business  and  pleasures  of  life,  the  ladies  of  the 
upper  class  Avere  formerly  kept  considerably  in  the 
background,  appearing  seldom  at  private  social  gather- 


228 


SIAM 


ings  of  any  but  the  most  intimate  kind  and  never  on 
any  account  at  public  or  official  functions.  The  fact 
that  His  Majesty  the  late  King  maintained  a very  large 
female  household  may  have  had  something  to  do  with 
the  restriction  of  the  liberty  of  the  upper  class  women, 
but  whatever  the  cause  may  have  been  it  has  apparently 
ceased  to  operate.  Her  Majesty  the  Queen  Mother,  the 
King  being  unmarried,  is  tlie  first  lady  in  the  state  and 
she  is  evidently  in  favour  of  greater  freedom.  Since 
her  widowhood  she  has  travelled  far  and  wide,  both 
abroad  and  in  her  own  country,  and  it  is  reported  that 
she  contemplates  a tour  of  Europe.  At  the  functions 
connected  with  the  recent  coronation  Siamese  ladies 
were  to  be  seen  everywhere,  in  the  stalls  of  the  royal 
theatre,  at  the  various  ministerial  receptions  and  dancing 
at  the  state  ball.  It  is  probable  that  this  movement,  if 
persisted  in,  will  result  in  the  practical  disappearance  of 
polygamy  from  Siam  and  in  any  case,  by  widening  the 
outlook  and  improving  the  education  of  the  women  it 
cannot  fail  to  have  considerable  effect  on  the  social  and 
material  welfare  of  the  coimtry. 

But  although  a great  deal  has  been  accomplished  in 
the  way  of  reorganisation,  and  the  condition  of  the 
Siamese  as  a nation  has  very  much  improved,  more 
especially  during  the  last  fifteen  years  or  so,  it  must 
not  be  thought  that  the  regeneration  is  an  accomplished 
fact  and  that  the  people  are  now  all  at  once  freed  from 
the  incubus  of  ugly  social  customs  which  have  weighed 
upon  them  for  so  many  generations.  To  decree  a 
change  in  habits  and  mannei*  of  thought  and  to  bring 
that  same  decree  into  universal  acceptance  and  practice 
are  two  very  different  things.  Prejudice  and  privilege 
have  fought  against  every  step,  and  have  found  many 
ways,  without  open  conflict  or  flat  disobedience,  of 
ojjposing  the  royal  will  and  of  obstructing,  if  not 
altogether  frustrating,  its  intentions.  The  ignorance 


SOCIAL  ORGANISATION  229 


of  the  lower  orders  causes  them  to  realise  hut  slowly 
the  advantages  of  freedom  and  the  power  which  they 
have  of  asserting  their  newly-given  right  to  the  same, 
and  hence,  more  especially  in  the  remoter  districts, 
many  old  abuses  still  continue.  The  leaven  is  working, 
however ; every  year  sees  the  increase  of  the  band  of 
supporters  of  social  reform,  and  unless  a severe  reaction 
sets  in,  which  there  appears  no  reason  to  fear,  the 
emancipation  of  the  nation  is  now  only  a matter  of 
time. 

Education 

The  question  of  education  is  very  closely  interwoven 
with  that  of  social  reform.  Indeed  it  may  be  said  that 
the  neglect  of  education  in  the  past  has  proved  one  of 
the  great  obstacles  to  the  improvement  of  social  con- 
ditions, while  the  evils  of  those  conditions  have  at  the 
same  time  been  the  chief  causes  of  the  neglect  of 
education.  It  is  only  within  the  last  twenty  years, 
however,  that  these  facts  have  obtained  partial  recognition 
and  that  efforts  have  been  made  to  supply  the  general 
public  with  opportunities  for  olitaining  more  than  the 
most  elementary  instruction,  and  it  has  scarcely  3'Ct 
been  realised  that  social  changes  have  made  it,  to  some 
extent,  possible  to  obtain  by  learning  that  social 
advancement  which  was  formerh'  dependent  upon 
interest  or  the  merest  luck. 

Ever  since  the  estalilisliment  of  Buddhism  in  the 
country,  a certain  amount  of  instruction  has  been 
available  to  the  ])uldic  in  the  monasteries  wliere  the 
monks,  while  cultivating  a knowledge  of  the  Pali 
language,  tlie  Scri|)tures  and  other  subjects,  sometimes 
deep  but  seldom  of  much  practical  value,  also  taught 
the  male  population  reading,  writing  and  arithmetic  in 
their  most  elementary  forms.  The  foreign  missionaries 


230 


SIAM 


were,  liowever,  the  pioneers  in  Siam  of  education  in  the 
usual  acceptation  of  the  term  hut  the  scope  of  their 
labours  was  much  confined  until  the  accession  of  King 
Maha  Mongkut  who,  having  himself  acquired  consider- 
able learning  from  the  American  Presbyterians,  placed 
many  facilities  in  their  way  and  encouraged  his  people 
so  far  as  he  could  without  derogation  of  the  national 
religion,  to  take  advantage  of  the  opportunities  offered 
by  these  worthies.  Secular  schools  were  also  established 
by  private  enterprise  in  Bangkok  during  that  reign  but 
the  instruction  imparted  in  them  was  very  little  less 
rudimentary  than  that  given  by  the  monks.  It  was 
about  this  time,  also,  that  the  practice  of  sending  boys 
to  foreign  countries  to  be  educated  was  instituted,  with 
the  object  of  securing  for  princes  and  youths  of  the 
higher  class,  an  acc[uaintaiice  with  the  outside  world 
and  a general  education  of  a quality  which  could  not 
be  obtained  anywhere  in  Siam.  In  time  the  number  of 
boys  thus  sent  abroad  increased  considerably  and 
technical  training  was  provided  in  addition  to  general 
education,  by  which  it  was  hoped  that  specialists  would 
be  obtained,  capable  of  managing  various  de]3artments 
of  government  and  of  imparting  their  knowledge  to  the 
youth  of  the  country.  The  selection  of  students  for 
foreign  instruction  was,  however,  lacking  in  system  and 
it  cannot  be  said  that  the  scheme,  as  at  first  carried  out, 
was  successful,  for  though  the  youths  proved  themselves 
to  the  full  as  intelligent  as  the  English  l)oys  with  whom 
they  came  in  contact,  some  of  them  acquired  expensive 
and  vicious  tastes  which  proved  their  ruin  on  their 
return  liome,  while  others  failed  from  one  cause  or 
another  to  make  any  use  of  their  special  knowledge  in 
after  life. 

In  the  year  1801  II.R.II.  Prince  Damrong,  whose 
name  will  be  found  intimately  associated  with  almost 
every  Siamese  reform  during  the  last  quarter  of  a 


EDUCATION 


231 


centniy,  was  sent  on  a mission  to  Europe  to  study  tlie 
question  of  edncation  and,  on  liis  retnrn,  a Government 
Department  of  Edncation  was  inaugurated  wliicli  a little 
later  became  the  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction.  An 
English  gentleman  then  acting  as  tutor  to  the  Crown 
Prince,  and  who  has  since  achieved  eminence  in  the 
educational  world,  was  associated  with  Prince  Damrong 
in  this  important  work,  and  to  their  joint  labours  is  to 
l)e  attributed  the  scheme  of  national  instruction  which 
the  Government  is  now  engaged  in  carrying  out  and 
developing. 

The  first  object  of  the  new  scheme  was  the  provision 
of  a sound  elementary  or  j^rimary  edncation  Avhich 
should  be  ])laced  within  the  grasp  of  everybody  in  the 
country  and  which  should  serve  as  a foundation  for 
secondary  and  higher  courses.  The  absence  of  text 
books  in  the  native  language  x^i’esented  to  Siam  the 
same  serious  problem  which  had  faced  Japan  in  her 
early  years  of  develojnnent  and  involved  the  necessity 
of  adopting  a European  language  and  of  teaching  the 
same  as  a medium  throngli  which  higher  edncation 
might  be  acquired.  Tradition  and  association  clearly 
indicated  English  as  the  language  best  suited  to  perform 
this  part  and  it  \vas  therefore  arranged  that  the  secondary 
education  to  be  provided  by  the  State  should  consist  of 
two  branches,  one  a course  in  Siamese  l>y  which  youths 
could  be  equipped  for  the  ordinary  liusiness  of  life,  and 
the  other  a five  years’  course  in  English  as  a preliminary 
to  the  scientific  study  of  some  special  subject.  Further 
aims  of  the  new  Department  were  the  provision  of  high 
class  schools  for  the  education  of  the  children  of  the 
princes  and  nobility  and  the  foundation  of  colleges  for 
the  training  of  teachers. 

Put  although  thus  provided  with  an  excellent  scheme, 
the  Department  of  Education  languished  during  the 
first  years  of  its  existence.  Other  pressing  needs  of 


232 


SIAM 


the  State  demanded,  and  for  a time  absorbed,  the 
energies  of  Prince  Damrong,  while  his  English  coad- 
jutor left  the  service  of  the  country,  and  it  was  not 
until  rapid  development  of  many  branches  of  the 
administration  revealed  an  extreme  poverty  in  the 
matter  of  competent  men  required  for  every  grade  of 
the  Public  Service,  that  serious  attention  was  once  more 
directed  to  this  most  important  question.  Since  then, 
however,  the  progress  of  the  Department  has  been  good. 
In  Bangkok  at  first,  and  subsequently  in  the  interior, 
many  lower  primary  schools  were  opened,  the  majority 
of  which,  by  a wise  arrangement,  were  founded  upon 
the  old  temple  schools  of  the  Buddhist  system  with  the 
monks  as  teachers.  A boarding  school  for  the  sons, 
and  another  for  the  daughters  of  the  nobility,  was 
inaugurated,  each  with  a staff  of  qualified  English 
teachers.*  Primary  and  Secondary  schools  with  mixed 
Siamese  and  English  teachers  were  started  in  the 
Chpital  and  the  training  college,  to  which  a second  Avas 
subsequently  added,  became  filled  AAdtli  students  both 
cleric  and  lay.  MeaiiAvhile  the  Medical  schools  were 
developed  and  enlarged  and  in  course  of  time  many 
other  technical  institutions  such  as  the  Law,  Military, 
Civil  Service,  Engineering,  Suiwe}^  and  Agricultural 
schools  were  opened,  though  these  last  are  not  directly 
under  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction. 

At  the  present  time  the  LoAver  Primary  schools  are 

* The  former  of  these  institutions,  knoAvn  as  King’s  College, 
proved  a phenomenal  success  under  the  able  direction  of  its 
talented  Principal  and  for  many  years  turned  out  a steady  stream 
of  well-educated,  good-mannered  youths,  a credit  alike  to  the 
college  and  to  the  country.  Recently  the  institution  has  been 
re-modelled  and  transferred  from  the  Ministry  of  Public  In- 
struction to  the  Ministry  of  Justice  and  now,  on  a new  site  at 
some  distance  from  Bangkok,  with  new  Principal,  new  masters 
and  new  curriculum,  it  is  setting  forth  to  show  whether  or 
not  it  can  produce  results  equal  to  those  obtained  in  its  un- 
reorganised days. 


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IXTF.KIOK  OF  A GOVFKX.MEXT  SCHOOL.  PItolo:  Anfonio. 


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EDUCATION 


233 


giving  instrnctioii  to  over  150,000  pupils,  tlie  Primary 
schools  to  some  8000,  the  special  and  secondary  schools 
of  Bangkok  to  over  1000,  and  the  training  colleges  are 
turning  out  some  thirty  certified  teachers  a year  all  of 
whom  are  immediately  absorbed  in  the  secular  and 
monastic  Primary  schools  and  in  the  Secondary  schools. 

The  Technical  schools  are  doing  good  work  and  most 
of  them  have  as  many  pupils  as  they  can  do  with.  The 
Civil  Service  school,  a most  excellent  institution,  the 
pupils  of  which  are  selected  from  amongst  the  most 
promising  schoolboys  of  the  upper  and  upper-middle 
classes,  is  creating  an  entirely  new  brand  of  official,  by 
which  the  general  administration  work  of  the  interior 
cannot  but  benefit  very  greatly.  The  Military  schools, 
which  are  exceedingly  poj)ular  with  the  highest  class, 
provide  a training  for  young  gentlemen  who  wish  to 
enter  the  army  and  the  navy  and,  though  the  military 
forces  of  Siam  are  not  perhaps  her  most  valuable  asset, 
yet  the  discipline  wliicli  the  schools  inculcate  in  young 
men,  who  might  otherwise  be  difficult  to  control,  places 
them  amongst  the  most  healthy  institutions  of  the 
country.  The  Medical,  Law  and  other  technical  schools 
are  all  doing  good  work,  and  if  their  curricula  are  not 
high,  the  graduates  of  the  schools  are  an  immense  im- 
provement on  the  apologies  for  doctors,  lawyers  and 
others  of  fifteen  or  twenty  years  ago,  while  the  standard 
of  efficiency  rises  steadily.  The  selection  of  students 
for  foreign  education  is  now  determined  principally  by 
merit.  Two  scholarships  worth  £300  a year  each  for 
four  years,  provided  by  the  royal  liounty,  are  competed 
for  annually  by  the  scholars  of  the  special  schools,  the 
conditions  attaching  to  them  being  the  study  in  Europe 
of  any  special  subject  for  which  the  holder  may  have 
a preference,  with  the  obligation  of  adhering  to  a settled 
programme  and  of  subsec[uently  placing  his  services  at 
the  disposal  of  the  State.  Many  of  the  technical  schools 


234 


SIAM 


also  provide  scliolarsliips  with  the  object  of  enabling 
the  best  of  their  students  to  complete  their  education  in 
Europe.  Moreover  the  scholars  who  now  go  abroad  are 
more  carefully  controlled  than  was  formerly  the  case,  so 
that  the  bad  specimens  who  at  one  time  brought  the 
foreign-educated  youth  into  disrespect  are  now  of  rare 
occurrence.  The  necessary  work  of  school  inspection 
has  been  much  developed  of  late,  a strong  staff  under 
skilled  European  suf)ervision  having  been  organised 
and  got  into  good  working  condition. 

Accustomed  as  they  are  to  bearing  their  educational 
methods  decried,  it  is  gratifying  to  Englishmen,  and 
perhaps  also  a little  surprising,  to  know  that  after 
mature  consideration  his  late  Siamese  Majesty  de- 
liberately adopted  those  very  same  methods,  and  that 
practically  all  the  foreigners  whom  he  engaged  to  assist 
his  government  in  this  work  of  fundamental  import- 
ance, were  Englishmen  who  had  gained  their  own 
education  and  experience  in  British  schools  and 
universities. 

While  the  government  has  been  busy  with  its  schemes 
of  education,  the  Foreign  Missioiis  have  no  whit  relaxed 
their  educational  efforts.  Both  the  French  Roman 
Catholics  and  the  American  Presl)yterians  continue  to 
devote  themselces  largel}^  to  the  work  of  teaching  and 
now  have  well  organised  schools  in  all  parts  of  the 
country.  The  College  of  the  Assumption  in  Bangkok 
has  over  four  hundred  pupils  from  amongst  whom  the 
government  still  continues  to  draw  many  recruits  for 
its  various  services.  The  American  High  School  for 
boys  is  a well  known  institution,  the  great  value  of 
whicli  is  fully  recognised  by  the  nation.  The  schools 
of  both  denominations  in  the  provinces  show  a steady 
increase,  both  in  number  and  attendance  and,  were  it 
not  for  religious  difficulties,  would  doubtless  long  ago 
have  been  in  receipt  of  regular  grants-in-aid  from  the 


EDUCATION 


235 


government.  Tlie  American  school  at  "Wang  Lang  in 
Bangkok,  and  the  convents  of  the  Holy  Infant  Jesns  and 
the  Assumption,  were  the  pioneers  of  female  education 
in  Siam,  the  first  of  these  being  still  the  largest  and 
most  successful  girls’  school  in  the  country. 

Blit  even  more  interesting  than  the  schools  themselves 
is  the  material  upon  which  these  Siamese  educational 
reformers  are  busy,  for  upon  the  cjiiality  of  the  raw 
material  must  depend  in  great  measure  the  value  of  the 
finished  article,  no  matter  how  excellent  may  be  the 
machinery  employed  in  the  manufacture.  At  four  o’clock 
on  CA^ery  ivorking  afternoon  the  doors  of  the  Bangkok 
schools  are  opened,  and  vfith  shrill  vdiistling  and  cat- 
calls, some  thousands  of  small  boys  project  thomseHes 
Auolently  into  the  streets  to  the  disorganisation  of  the 
traffic  and  to  the  profit  of  numerous  sv^eetmeat  sellers, 
who  compress  vdtliin  the  ensuing  five  minutes  the 
business  of  their  day.  All  the  boys  are  dressed  alike 
in  straiv  hats,  Avhite  linen  coats,  khaki  knickerbockers, 
and  black  shoes  and  stockings.  Each  carries  a satchel 
or  strap  filled  Avith  books,  and  each  one  impresses  upon 
tlie  obserA-er  the  fact  that  the  schoolboy,  AAdiatCA^er  his 
outAA’ard  complexion,  is  much  the  same  all  the  AA'orld 
OA'er.  The  Siamese  urchin  appears  intelligent,  quick- 
Avitted,  and  independent,  he  is  gifted  Avith  the  cheerful 
and  casual  turn  of  mind  found  in  his  prototype  in  other 
countries,  he  accepts  AAuth  an  equal  mind  the  role  for 
AAdiich  he  finds  himself  cast,  and,  judging  by  his 
grinning  countenance,  does  not  alloAA’  his  destiny  as  a 
future  regenerator  of  his  country  to  Aveigli  too  heavily 
on  his  conscience.  Of  games  he  has  almost  none  of  his 
OAAUi,  but  inspired  by  his  English  masters,  has  taken 
readily  to  football  and  to  athletics  generally.  In  school 
he  is  amenable  to  discipline,  docile,  and  quick  to  learn. 
His  manners  are  naturalh’  good,  and  his  respect  for  his 
teachers  is  great.  On  the  Avhole,  in  fact,  he  is  good 


236 


SIAM 


material  and  may  be  generally  relied  upon  to  repay  tlie 
cost  and  tlie  trouble  of  giving  him  a good  education. 

In  the  later  stages  of  his  development,  as  a junior 
clerk  in  an  office  or  as  a student  at  one  of  the  technical 
schools,  the  young  Siamese  of  the  middle  and  upper 
(dass  presents  many  points  of  interest.  Absolved  from 
the  wearing  of  school  clothes,  he  now  affects  the  national 
panung  with  smart,  white  coat,  foreign  hat  and  shoes 
and  stockings  or,  if  a cadet  of  the  Civil  Service  or 
Military  schools,  a neat  uniform  with  trousers.  His 
fancy,  which  in  this  country  turns  very  early  to  thoughts 
of  love,  is  busy  among  the  girls  of  his  entourage  and 
ideas  of  marriage  are  already  in  his  head.  His  days 
are  devoted  to  work,  not  perhaps  too  strenuous  but  still 
work,  and  his  nights  to  merry-making.  He  belongs  to 
some  club  and  has  his  own  set,  with  the  members 
of  which  he  talks  endless  shop.  His  sentiments  are 
violently  loyal  and  patriotic,  he  is  inclined  to  boast 
of  himself  and  his  country  and,  though  he  will  probabl}^ 
not  say  so  in  their  presence,  he  feels  himself  very  much 
the  superior  of  all  foreigners.  Withal  he  is  usually  docile 
in  the  presence  of  his  superioi’s,  his  affections  are  easily 
aroused,  and  when  so  he  is  a loyal  and  consistent  friend. 

In  considering  the  question  of  education  in  Siam,  the 
fact  should  never  be  lost  sight  of  that  she  is  purely  and 
simply  an  agricultural  country,  and  that  since  her 
cultivable  area  is  Avide  enough  to  support  by  agriculture 
alone  a population  at  least  tliree  times  as  great  as  that 
AAdiich  she  has  at  present,  there  is  not  the  least  like- 
lihood that  the  causes  AAdiich  have  converted  other 
nations  from  agricultural  into  industrial  communities 
Avill  arise  Avithin  her  borders  at  any  rate  for  a very  long 
time  to  come.  For  this  reason  her  principal  endeavour 
should  be  to  enable  her  peojile  to  enjoy  peace,  justice, 
and  profit  in  the  development  of  her  great  agricultural 
resources,  and  her  Government  has  done  wisely  in 


V 


EDUCATTON  237 

disregarding  the  scorn  which  has  so  frequently  been 
levelled  at  her  for  failing  to  provide  all  her  children 
with  commercial  and  industrial  education,  and  in 
devoting  her  chief  educational  efforts  to  the  securing  of 
these  three  great  blessings.  In  a recent  book  on  Siam 
an  unwise  person  has  remarked  that  the  Siamese  are 
distinctly  a governing  race.  This  is,  of  course,  nonsense, 
since  a governing  race  implies  a race  apt  for  the 
controlling  of  alien  peoples,  whilst  b}^  their  national 
characteristics  the  Siamese  are  precluded  from  the 
mastery  of  the  first  rudiments  of  this  difficult  science. 
Nevertheless,  and  this  is  perhaps  what  the  author  was 
trying  to  say,  the  efficient  government  of  their  own 
country  is  what  chiefly  concerns  the  Siamese  now  and 
in  the  immediate  future,  and  it  is  therefore  of  subjects 
connected  therewith  that  the  higher  branch  of  the 
national  education  very  properly  consists.  Should  the 
day  ever  unfortunately  arise  when,  by  stress  of 
population  or  from  other  cause,  the  Siamese  are  driven 
from  their  bucolic  pursuits  into  competition  with 
industrial  nations,  the  instruction  and  the  knowledge 
will  doubtless  arrive  together  with  the  energy  and 
other  qualities,  at  present  lacking,  which  are  necessary 
to  endurance  and  success  under  such  adverse 
circumstances. 


Government 

It  has  already  been  said  that  the  king  of  Siam  possesses 
over  his  people  and  country  a power  of  the  most  absolute 
description  but  tliat,  while  very  particular  regarding 
the  full  recognition  of  such  power,  Ilis  i\rajesty  tlie 
King  very  seldom  actually  wields  it  in  person  except 
in  accordance  with  the  constitutional  arrangements 
which  his  father  made  for  the  conduct  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  country.  In  the  time  of  the  two  Chief 


238 


SIAM 


Ministers  and  Conncillors  of  the  right  and  left,  a period 
which  extended  from  about  the  middle  of  the  15th 
century  a.d.  down  to  a few  years  ago,  the  actual  details 
of  the  administration,  such  as  it  was,  were  in  the  hands 
of  the  Sovereign  himself,  the  ministers  being  no  more 
than  the  messengers  and  mouth]3ieces  of  their  master. 
Occasionally  there  arose  a statesman  or  a general  of 
such  character  as  to  become  in  a measure  the  adviser 
and  the  confidant  of  Majesty,  and  sometimes  also  the 
occupant  of  the  throne  was  a voi  faineant  who  allowed 
the  reins  of  government  to  slip  from  his  hands  into 
those  of  his  chief  officers,  often  to  his  own  undoing, 
but  usually  the  power  of  the  ministers  was  much 
circumscribed  and  they  had  very  little  voice  indeed  in 
the  settling  of  matters,  great  or  small,  connected  with 
the  administration.  In  the  reign  of  King  Maha  Mongkut, 
changes  were  made,  with  the  intention  of  allowing 
power  to  the  great  officers  of  the  state,  but  these  were 
not  productive  of  much  good  effect,  and  in  the  early 
years  of  the  last  reign  it  became  evident  that  the 
needs  of  the  country  had  altogether  outgrown  the  old 
system  and  that  a distribution  of  the  work  amongst 
I)ersons  competent  to  administer  and  to  advise,  was 
absolutely  necessary  unless  further  progress  and  develop- 
ment were  to  be  seriously  hampered. 

In  the  year  1892,  ten  chief  Dej)artments  of  State  were 
created  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  military  and  civil 
right  and  left  divisions,  the  Ministers  in  charge  of 
which  should  form  a Council  wherein  all  matters  of 
government  should  be  debated.  The  departments  were 
for  Foreign  Affairs,  War,  Interior,  Finance,  Royal 
Household,  9 ustice,  Public  Works,  Public  Instruction, 
Agriculture,  and  the  Ministry  of  the  Capital.  The 
ministers  are  all  of  equal  ollicial  rank  and  the  Sovereign 
presides  at  their  meetings,  acting  as  his  own  Prime 
Minister  and  reserving  the  right  of  veto.  The  Council 


GOVERNMENT 


239 


lias  sat  regularly  evei’  since  its  inception  and  all  the 
measures  which  have  so  much  contributed  to  the  recent 
conspicuous  advance  of  the  country  in  every  direction, 
have  been  fully  discussed  by  it  before  being  allowed  to 
become  law.  There  is  also  a Legislative  Council  com- 
posed of  a large  number  of  the  most  influential  men  in 
the  country  by  which  all  new  laws  of  the  State  are  finally 
considered  before  being  made  effective. 

Under  tlie  ministries  thus  formed,  the  various  branches 
of  the  administration  have  been  grouped,  each  with  its 
own  staff  of  officers  presided  over  by  a chief  or  director 
responsible  to  the  minister  who  in  turn  is  resi)onsible  to 
the  king.  Many  of  these  departments  were,  of  course, 
already  in  existence  in  some  form  or  other  under  the 
old  arrangement,  but  all  required  and  received  con- 
siderable re-organisation  and  maii}^  new  offices  have, 
from  time  to  time,  l)een  created  to  keep  pace  with 
increasing  requirements. 

Under  the  old  order  an  extensive  and  intricate  system 
of  official  titles  existed,  by  which  the  holders  of  various 
offices  were  graded  and  designated.  Every  office  of 
any  importance  carried  a title  consisting  of  words,' 
usually  of  the  classical  Pali  language,  having  more 
or  less  dire(*t  reference  to  the  office  and  to  the  official 
duties  of  the  holder,  pi-efixed  to  which  words  was  one 
which  denoted  the  rank  attaching  to  the  office.  Such 
an  official  title  on  being  assumed  b}^  a man,  became 
practically  his  name  for  lie  was  in  future  known  by  it 
alone,  that  whi(‘h  he  originally  bore  falling  altogether 
into  disuse  and  being  very  likely  forgotten  in  time  by 
all  except  his  intimates.  An  officer  once  ap])ointed  was 
never  degraded  except  for  the  very  worst  offences  and 
hence,  nnlcss  he  were  promoted,  he  retained  his  title  to 
the  end  of  his  life.  Ollicial  incapacity  or  senility  might 
cause  his  compulsory  retirement  from  active  work,  but 
in  such  case  he  retained  his  title  and  nominally  his 


240 


SIAM 


office,  wliicli  could  not  be  filled  until  after  his  death. 
The  higher  officials  were  ranked  in  five  main  grades, 
Somdet  Chao  Phaya,  Chao  Phaya,  Phaya,  Phra  and 
Luang  with  three  special  grades  Chao  Mun,  Cha  Mun 
and  Cha  for  the  officers  of  the  Corps  of  Royal  Pages. 
Further  subdivisions  of  rank  were  distinguished  by 
purely  nominal  rights  over  rice  lands,  called  sahdi, 
which  were  attached  to  each  appointment,  and  the 
amount  of  which  varied  from  400  (or  from  300  in  the 
case  of  the  Corps  of  Royal  Pages)  up  to  10,000  rai, 
a rai  being  the  unit  of  land-measure  and  equal  to  two- 
fifths  of  an  acre,  while  yet  further  subdivisions  were 
indicated  by  the  giving  of  insignia,  such  as  a golden 
betel-box  or  a state  palanquin  as  special  marks  of 
distinction.  Below  these  grades  were  others  Khim, 
Mim,  Isiamnan  and  Pantanai,  petty  officials  who  received 
no  patent  of  nobility  with  their  appointments,  and  who 
frequently  held  their  titles  not  from  the  king  but  from 
the  chief  of  a province,  their  offices  bearing  the  same 
relation  to  him,  as  did  those  of  the  high  officers  of  state 
to  the  king. 

The  re-organisation  of  the  services  was  the  signal  for 
a ‘ general  post  ’ amongst  the  officials.  Many  ancient  and 
time-honoured  offices  went  into  abeyance,  while  others 
which  had  hitherto  had  no  place  in  the  scheme  of 
government  now  came  into  existence.  So  far  as  possible 
the  old  officials  were  fitted  into  the  organised  offices 
but  many  of  the  senior  men,  unable  to  adapt  themselves 
to  new  ways,  retired  into  private  life,  retaining  only 
their  titles  and  leaving  to  younger  officers  the  task  of 
dealing  with  the  new-fangled  notions  of  government, 
though  the  newcomers  could  not  assume  the  official 
title  belonging  to  the  office  during  the  lifetime  of  the 
former  incumbent.  Thus  the  old  official  order  became 
confused,  and  though,  as  the  elders  died  off,  their  titles 
were  in  most  cases  confered  upon  the  actual  holders  of 


GOVERNMENT 


241 


office,  yet  the  invention  of  new  titles  for  new  appoint- 
ments and  the  frequent  promotions,  transfers  and,  be  it 
added,  reductions  and  dismissals  entailed  by  the  new 
system  made  it  impossible  to  adhere  to  an  arrangement 
which  depended  entirely  upon  the  inseparability  of  the 
man  and  his  office. 

The  Ministry  for  Foreign  Affairs. — At  the  time 
when  her  machinery  of  government  was  reorganised, 
Siam  was  entering  upon  a new  x'>hase  in  her  relations 
with  the  outside  world,  the  chief  phenomena  of  which 
were  a rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  foreigners 
resorting  to  the  country  for  purposes  of  trade  and 
the  advance  of  the  French  towards  the  river  Mehkong 
on  her  eastern  borders.  The  former  of  these  very 
naturally  brought  into  prominence  all  questions  re- 
lating to  the  treaty  rights  of  foreign  subjects,  greatly 
to  the  increase  of  business  between  the  re[)resentatives 
of  Foreign  Powers  and  the  Government,  wliile  the 
latter  presented  Siam  with  a series  of  problems  con- 
cerning foreign  affairs  wliich  she  had  never  before 
encountered  and  which,  it  could  l)e  seen,  threatened 
her  with  national  disaster  unless  considered  with  the 
utmost  care  and  circumspection.  Tims,  the  re-organised 
Ministry  for  Foreign  Alfairs,  which  was  placed  under 
the  guidance  of  H.  R.  II.  Prince  Dewawongse,  a half- 
brother  of  his  late  Majesty,  found  itself  early  embarked 
on  troubled  waters  and  tliough  tlie  ]\Iinister  had  the 
assistance  of  a Belgian  gentleman,  an  eminent  inter- 
national lawyer  and  ex-Minister  of  State  in  his  owui 
country  as  his  adviser,  it  was,  then  and  for  some  years 
to  come,  only  with  the  greatest  difliculty  and  many  hair- 
breadth escapes  that  a clear  course  was  steered.  In 
dealing  with  the  rapid  advance  of  the  French  on  the 
east  and  the  determined  claims  to  Siamese  territoiy 
which  were  put  forward  I)y  that  lAwer,  an  unfortujiate 
policy  was  adopted,  the  Minister  and  his  adviser 
Q 


242 


SIAM 


placing  too  miicli  reliance  on  the  undoubted  legal 
rights  of  Siam  in  the  matter  and  overlooking  until 
almost  too  late  the  possibility  of  a disregard  of  right 
and  a resort  to  sheer  force  by  her  opponent  in  order 
to  secure  the  realisation  of  cherished  schemes  of 
colonial  aggrandisement  Though  actual  collisions 
occurred  between  the  armed  forces  of  the  disputants, 
a state  of  war  was  avoided,  probably  owing  to  French 
uncertainty  as  to  the  attitude  of  England  in  the  matter, 
but  Siam  lost  territory  and  prestige  and  a situation 
of  most  unjdeasant  tension  was  established  in  which 
the  French  apx'>eared  determined  to  find,  in  the  fancied 
ill-treatment  of  French  subjects  in  Siam,  a pretext 
for  further  aggression,  while  the  energies  of  the 
Siamese  Foreign  Office  were  continually  absorbed  in 
refuting  charges  of  neglect  of  treaty  obligations  brought 
against  all  departments  of  the  administration. 

Subsecpient  to  the  first  tour  of  His  Majesty  King 
Chulalongkorn  in  Europe,  dij^lomatic  relations  with 
the  outside  world  were  considerably  extended,  a Siamese 
legation  was  established  at  St  Petersburg  in  addition 
to  those  at  London,  Paris,  Berlin  and  Washington, 
and  at  the  same  time  a Pussian  representative  was 
received  at  Bangkok,  where  he  essayed  for  some  time  to 
influence  tlie  politics  of  the  country  but  ultimately  re- 
tired into  the  background.  About  this  time  also 
diplomatic  relations  were  established  with  Japan,  a 
Siamese  representative  being  appointed  to  Tokyo  and  a 
Japanese  legation  established  at  Bangkok,  an  arrange- 
ment by  which  Siam  has  benefitted  in  more  ways  than  one. 

The  Belgian  Adviser  having  retired  to  Europe  after 
his  policy  liad  been  pursued  for  some  ten  years  with 
bnt  mediocre  results.  His  Majesty’s  Government  found 
his  successor  in  a Professor  of  law  at  the  University 
of  Harvard,  a gentleman  of  long  experience  in  the 
diplomatic  service  of  the  United  States  of  America. 


GOVERNMENT 


243 


Tlie  choice  could  not  possil)ly  have  been  more  fortunate. 
The  Adviser  with  singular  insight  discovered  at  once 
the  weak  points  in  the  former  policy  and  set  himself 
to  the  task  of  correcting  past  errors  and  of  repairing  the 
damage  which  the  state  had  suffered  by  them.  The 
Foreign  Representatives  in  Bangkok  were  not  slow 
to  perceive  the  change  and  with  the  assistance  of  the 
Adviser,  H.R.H.  the  Minister  was  soon  enabled  to  bring 
about  more  cordial  relations  with  them  than  had  ever 
existed  before,  the  principal  results  of  Avhich  AA^ere  a 
rapproachment  Avith  France  and  the  settlement  of 
all  difficulties  AAntli  that  nation,  the  unreseiwed  recogni- 
tion of  several  laAvs  affecting  both  natiA^es  and  foreign 
subjects,  AAdiich  Siam  had  long  desired  to  introduce, 
but  AAdiich  for  Amrious  reasons  had  been  opposed  by 
the  PoAvers,  and  the  actiAm  co-operation  of  the  foreign 
Consuls  in  the  enforcing  of  such  laAvs.  But  the 
croAvning  achieA^ement  of  the  iieAv  policy  has  been  the 
reAusion  of  the  treaties  Avith  England  and  AAdth  France, 
liy  AAdiich  rcAdsion  the  subjects  of  those  PoAvers  have 
been  brought  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  laivs  of 
Siam.  To  the  great  sorroAV  of  all  AAdio  kneAv  him, 
the  AdAuser  died  in  the  spring  of  1908,  leaAdng  un- 
finished many  of  the  schemes  AAdiich  had  been  brought 
foiward  for  the  iniprovement  of  the  GoAmrnment  during 
the  four  and  a half  years  that  he  had  been  in  Siam  ; 
schemes  affecting  not  only  the  Department  of  Foreign 
Affairs  but  many  other  branches  of  the  administration. 
Fortunately,  hoAA'ever,  his  assistant,  also  a Harvard 
professor,  Avho  had  accompanied  him  on  his  first 
coming  to  Siam  and  AAdio  had  been  closely  associated 
Avith  him  in  his  AA^ork  there,  took  up  the  tasks  AAdiich 
fell  unfinished  from  his  hands,  and  Avith  the  assistance 
of  this  gentleman  the  GoA-ernment  continues  to  pursue 
the  policy  AAdiich  has  had  for  it  so  many  beneficial 
results, 


244 


SIAM 


The  Ministry  of  War. — Altliongli  tlie  inhabitants  of 
Further  India  are  not, . and  ajopareiiFy  never  were, 
very  remarkaljle  for  warlike  qualities,  they  have  from 
time  immemorial  been  continnally  engaged  in  war.  The 
whole  snb-continent  is  strewn  with  the  remains  of 
cities  sacked  and  destroyed  during  struggles  of 
supremacy  between  kingdom  and  kingdom,  while  of 
the  existing  towns  there  are  few  of  more  than  the 
most  modern  growth,  which  have  not  at  one  time  or 
another  endured  the  jjains  and  jndvations  of  a siege. 
The  art  of  war,  as  anciently  practised  by  the  Burmese, 
Siamese,  Kambodians,  Mens  and  other  more  or  less 
allied  families  and  races,  was  identical  with  all  of 
them  in  detail,  as  well  as  in  general  principle.  The 
chief  points  always  dvept  in  view^  were,  to  attack  only 
when  in  superior  numbers,  to  advance,  when  in  the 
face  of  the  enemy,  by  a series  of  stockaded  positions, 
to  risk  encounter  in  the  open  as  seldom  as ' possible 
and  then  only  if  a safe  line  of  retreat  were  open,  and 
to  count  time  as  if  no  object  at  all,  but  whenever 
possible  to  rely  for  ultimate  victory  u]3on  moral  dis- 
organisation wrought  by  long  suspense  in  the  ranks 
of  the  enemy,  for  the  further  promotion  of  which  many 
devices  were  emx^loyed,  such  as  the  exliibition  at  a 
distance  of  an  apxiarently  overwhelming  strength, 
incessant  firing  of  guns,  beating  of  gongs  and  the 
making  of  other  fear-inspiring  warlike  noises.  Whole 
armies  frequently  lay  within  hail  of  each  other  for  days 
and  weeks,  contenting  themselves  with  the  interchange 
of  taunts  and  scurrilous  jests,  while  occasionally  a 
camx^^^iigii  would  be  decided  by  an  encounter  of 
chain j)ions,  field  in  full  view  of  both  sides.  So  long 
as  the  issue  remained  at  all  doubtful,  ruthless  massacre 
of  the  general  pox3ulation  of  an  invaded  territory  was  the 
rule,  but  when  complete  victory  had  been  established, 
all  but  the  most  important  persons,  whether  combatants 


GOVERNMENT 


245 


or  non-combatants,  were  generally  spared  to  be  carried 
into  captivit}^  Horril)le  tortures  Avere  emplo3^ed  in 
the  moment  of  idctoiy  but,  except  as  the  result  of 
complete  surjudse,  massacres  of  combatants  AA^ere  seldom 
very  extensiA^e,  as  an  army,  AAdien  once  disorganisation 
had  set  in,  shoAAmd  considerable  agility  in  remoAung 
itself  beyond  the  reach  of  tlie  foe,  Avliile,  from  fear 
of  ambush,  pursuit  AA^as  ahvays  diffident  and  sIoax. 
Such  details  as  discipline,  ])aAy  and  commissariat  had 
little  or  no  place  in  the  calculations  of  commanders. 
The  troops  AAutli  Amry  feAv  exceptions  consisted  of  raAv, 
ujitrained  leAues  summoned  from  the  country  districts 
or  tahen  by  press-gangs  ; a feAA^  AA^eapons  Avere  proAuded 
by  the  state  but  the  majority  of  tlie  soldiers  liad  to 
find  their  own  arms  AAdiich  AA^ere  consequently  of  Axarious 
kinds  ; the  prospect  of  loot  afforded  the  only  chance 
of  pay,  and  the  food  consisted  of  AAdiat  the  men  could 
forage  for  tliemselA^es  in  the  country  districts  contiguous 
to  the  scene  of  operations.  Armies  consisted  mainly  of 
infantry,  but  in  tlie  AA^ars  of  the  more  poAA^erful  nations, 
small  bodies  of  caAxalry  Avere  used,  AAdiile  the  commanders 
alAAmys  AA’ent  into  battle  mounted  on  elephants.  Amongst 
the  independent  tribes  beyond  the  frontier  of  Ihirma 
and  Siam,  AAaar  according  to  these  principles  is  still 
the  faATiurite  occupation  of  the  months  AAdiich  folloAV 
tlie  harvesting  of  the  rice-crops,  but  in  the  more 
civilised  communities  of  tlie  south  it  has  quite  gone 
out  of  fashion.  Tlie  last  military  ex]:)edition  undertaken 
by  Siam  under  the  old  condition  AA'as  against  the  Shan 
State  of  Keng  Tung  in  the  reign  of  King  iMaha  Mongkut 
A small  number  of  regular  soldiers,  that  is,  of  troops 
maintained  in  jieace-time  in  addition  to  the  irregular 
levies  raised  for  AAmr,  has  ahvays  formed  part  of  the 
a]ipanage  of  Siamese  Royalty,  and  as  AA'as  often  the 
custom  at  the  courts  of  other  despots  not  we]\  assured 
of  the  loyalty  of  their  oaaui  people,  this  standing  army. 


246 


SIAM 


or  rather  the  best  j)art  of  it,  was  sometimes  composed 
of  foreign  mercenaries,  the  hody-gnard  of  the  kings 
of  Aynthia  having  been  at  one  time  composed  of 
Malaj^s  and  other  Mahommedans,  at  another  of  Japanese, 
and  at  yet  another  of  Europeans,  the  last  being,  how- 
ever, an  institution  of  very  brief  duration.  Usually, 
however,  the  permanent  forces  of  Siam  were  recruited 
from  the  captives  taken  in  war  and  their  descendants, 
and  gradually  it  became  a fixed  rule  that  all  such,  and 
eventually  all  Malays,  Mens  and  Annamese  living  in 
Siam,  should  be  invariably  told  oif  for  service  in  the 
army  and  navy,  each  individual  jiassing  four  months 
of  every  year  on  duty,  during  which  period  he  received 
a wage  just  sufficient  to  provide  him  with  the  coarsest 
food.  This  form  of  corvee,  to  which  some  obloquy 
attached,  was  cordially  detested  by  all  those  who  were 
bound  to  it  and  when,  in  course  of  time,  efforts  were 
made  to  introduce  the  elements  of  discipline  and  some 
slight  knowledge  of  military  duty,  it  was  found  that 
the  system  was  useless  for  purposes  of  training  and 
that  the  men  provided  l)y  it  were  sullen  and  unteach- 
able  and  without  the  smallest  particle  of  military  spirit. 
It  was  also  found  that  the  numbers  so  obtained  were 
cpiite  insufficient  for  anything  but  a skeleton  force. 
The  Government,  however,  persisted  for  many  years  in 
the  attempt  to  make  the  old  system  suffice  for  modern 
requirements  with,  so  far  at  least  as  the  navy  was 
concerned,  some  slight  outside  appearance  of  success. 
But  on  the  few  occasions  when  the  fighting  capacity 
of  the  forces  was  put  to  tlie  test,  the  system  broke  down 
hopelessly  and,  after  local  disturbances,  whicli  occurred 
in  1902  in  the  east  and  north  of  the  kingdom,  had  been 
with  great  difficulty  put  doAvn,  it  became  abundantly 
evident  that  Avithout  complete  reorganisation  and 
fundamental  alteration  of  method,  Siam  could  never 
aspire  to  the  possession  of  military  and  naval  forces 


THE  SIAMESE  ARMY.  A MOUNTAIN  GUN  IN  ACTION 


THE  SIAMESE  ARMY.  THE  KOKAT  DIVISION  AT  MANCEUVKES.  IPIioto : Lenz. 


GOVERNMENT 


247 


ever  likely  to  be  aiiytliiiig  but  a useless  burden  to  her. 
The  return  home  of  several  young  princes  who  had 
received  military  education  in  Europe  and  who  naturally 
burned  with  the  desire  to  see  the  country  possessed 
of  a serviceable  army  and  navy,  ensured  the  serious 
consideration  of  the  problem  by  the  Government,  with 
the  result  that  in  the  year  1904  the  ancient  right  of 
the  Crown  to  the  services  of  every  able  bodied  man 
in  the  country  for  military  purposes,  was  resuscitated 
by  a Law  of  Conscription  extending  the  liability  for 
service  in  the  army  or  navy  during  peace-time  to  all 
the  adidt  male  inhabitants  of  the  kingdom,  subject 
to  such  exemptions  as  are  usually  granted  under  similar 
conditions  elsewhere.  This  law,  in  which  the  country 
is  considered  as  a number  of  military  divisions,  was 
at  first  brought  into  force  in  one  division  only  and 
after  a period  of  successful  experiment,  was  extended 
until  it  now  eml)races  the  greater  part  of  tlie  kingdom. 
The  civil  district  authorities  provide  the  military 
annually  with  lists  of  the  youths  who  have  reached 
eighteen  years,  the  age  for  enlistment.  From  these 
the  number  of  men  re(juired  is  selected  and  the  residue 
is  drafted  into  the  reserves,  after  further  selections  have 
been  made  for  the  police  and  gendarmerie  services. 
The  payment  of  rates  and  taxes  above  a certain  sum 
carries  exemption  from  liability  to  serve  and  at  first 
many  people  endowed  their  sons  with  land  and  other 
property  in  order  that  the}^  might  escape,  but  the 
practice  is  being  discontinued  as  the  fathers  begin  to 
perceive  that  a little  military  discipline  for  their  sons 
is  after  all  no  Ijad  tliijig,  while  to  disjiossess  themselves 
of  their  property  in  favour  of  a possibly  thankless  youth 
has  its  drawbacks.  At  the  same  time  the  i)ersonnel 
of  the  officers  of  both  branches  of  the  service  has  l)een 
entirely  reorganised  and  thanks  to  the  enthusiasm  and 
devotion  of  Field  i\larshal  ll.R.lf.  the  Frince  of  Nakhon 


248 


SIAM 


Chai  Sri,  of  General  H.R.H.  tlie  Prince  of  Pliitsanulok, 
General  H.R.H.  Prince  Kampengpetcli,  all  sons  of 
the  late  King,  and  their  assistants  and  to  the  influence 
of  the  cadet  schools,  has  imjiroved  very  much  during 
the  last  few  years.  Colonel  Gerini,  the  well-known 
authority  on  Further  Indian  history,  archeology  and 
religion,  was  for  many  years  ind entitled  with  all  that 
was  best  and  most  useful  in  the  reform  and  education 
of  the  Siamese  army.  Since  his  retirement  a technical 
adviser  and  one  or  two  medical  officers  are  the  only 
Europeans  olliciall}"  connected  with  the  land  forces. 

The  army  consists  of  ten  regiments  of  cavalry,  twenty 
batteries  of  mountain  and  field  artillery,  ten  corps  of 
engineers,  twent.y  regiments  comprising  sixty  battalions 
of  infantry,  besides  medical,  transport,  commissariat 
and  other  special  service  troops.  It  is  grouped  in 
territorial  divisions,  of  which  there  are  ten,  with  head- 
quarters at  the  principal  town  situated  within  the 
division.  The  total  strength  at  present  is  about  twenty 
tliousand  of  all  ranks,  exclusive  of  reserves,  of  which 
there  are  two,  the  first  entailing  two  months’  service 
annually  with  the  colours,  and  the  second  fifteen  days.* 

The  infantry  is  armed  with  a repeatiiig  rifle  of  recent 
pattern,  and  a short  bayonet,  the  cavalry  carry  a repeat- 
ing carbine  and  a sword,  and  the  artillerymen  are 
also  armed  with  a carbine.  Light  mountain  guns  of 
seven  centimetre  calil^re  are  the  onl}^  ordnance  at 
present  used  by  the  artillery,  these  having  been  found 
suitable  for  the  peculiar  transport  conditions  which 
prevail.  The  arm}^  uniform  consists  of  a grey  tunic, 
and  dark  blue  overalls  with  blue,  red  or  yellow 
facings,  and  Avhen  on  service  each  man  carries  a 
kna[)sack,  the  contents  of  Avhich  are  rvell  adapted  to 
local  requirements.  Two  years  rvith  the  coloui's  and 

* On  a war  footing  the  strength  of  the  army  rvonld  amount  to 
about  70,000  horse  and  foot  with  120  guns. 


GOVERNMENT 


249 


subsequent  enrolment  in  tlie  first  or  second  reserves 
are  obligatory  on  all  men  enlisted.  Each  man  serves  in 
the  military  district  of  which  he  is  a native,  and 
arrangements  exist  wliereljy  he  obtains  liberal  leave 
during  the  ploughing  and  reaping  seasons.  He  also 
receives  partial  exem])tion  from  taxation  while  in  the 
army.  The  offices  of  the  central  stall  are  situated  in  a 
commodions  l^nilding  at  Bangkok,  and  excellent  barrack 
accommodation  is  supplied,  both  there  and  at  all  other 
places  where  troops  are  j)ermanently  quartered. 

The  nav}’  vns  for  many  years  under  the  control  of 
Admiral  de  Bichelien,  a Dane,  vdio  during  long  service 
in  Siam  rose  to  a position  second  only  to  that  of  the 
Minister  of  AVar  himself.  During  his  regime  the  shi])S 
of  the  fleet  were  mostly  commanded  hj  officers  of  his 
own  nationality,  many  of  wliom  remain,  though  the 
Admiral  himself  retired  in  1003,  since  which  year  the 
naval  department  has  been  under  the  command  of 
lI.R.H.  Prince  Chao  Fa  From  Khun  Kakhon  Sawan, 
one  of  the  late  king’s  sons,  and  half  brother  to  His 
Majesty  King  Yajiravudh.* 

His  Majesty’s  3mcht,  an  armoured  tvciii-screw  steamer 
of  cruiser  type,  of  3000  tons  disjflacement,  2800  horse- 
power, 141  knots’  s])eed  and  carrying  10  guns,  is  the 
principal  ship  of  the  navy.  Tliere  are  also  six  steel 
screw  gunboats  of  from  500  to  700  tons  displacement, 
10  to  12  knots  speed,  mid  armed  with  from  0 to  12 
guns,  the  heaviest  of  vdiicli  are  4'7  inch,  and  one  t.b. 
destroyer,  and  three  torpedo-boats,  have  recently  been 
added  to  the  fleet.  Tiiere  are  also  tAvo  steam  transports, 
seAmn  armed  despatch  boats,  and  a fleet  of  fifty  river- 
steamers  and  launches  designed  for  seiwice  in  inland 
Avaters.  Three  forts  near  tlie  mouth  of  the  riAmr 

* A recentfv  promulgated  royal  decree  has  raised  the  status  of 
the  Admiral  in  chief  command  of  the  na\*y  to  that  of  iMinister  of 
State,  so  that  the  Marine  noAv  constitutes  an  eleventh  Ministry. 


250 


SIAM 


Menam  Cliao  Pliaya  are  under  the  control  of  the  navy, 
and  at  Bangkok  is  situated  an  arsenal  and  dockyard 
containing  the  Admiralty  offices,  barracks,  a dockyard 
capable  of  accommodating  the  largest  ship  in  the 
navy,  slipways,  sheerlegs,  and  workshops.  The 
personnel  of  the  navy  includes  besides  the  crews  of  the 
ships,  two  thousand  marine  infantry,  who  provide 
garrisons  for  the  river  forts.  With  the  exception  of 
occasional  visits  to  the  Straits  Settlements  and  to 
Hongkong,  the  fleet  is  usually  confined  to  home  waters, 
Pnket  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and 
Chantabnri  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam 
being  the  stations  most  frequently  visited. 

There  are  those  who  consider  that  the  geographical 
and  political  situation  of  Siam  renders  it  improbable 
that  such  an  army  and  navy  as  she  may  be  able  to  create 
can  ever  be  of  much  use  to  her,  and  that  the  material  at 
her  disposal  is  not  the  stuff  from  which  good  soldiers 
and  sailors  can  be  made,  but  tliere  is  no  doubt  that  as 
a school  of  training  and  as  a safeguard  of  internal 
l^eace  and  order,  the  maintenance  of  armed  forces 
sufficient  adequately  to  reinforce  the  gendarmerie  and 
liolice,  is  not  only  desiral)le  but  absolutely  necessary, 
whatever  may  be  the  nature  and  extent  of  their  foreign 
political  value,  while  the  working  of  the  new  law  as 
exemplified  by  the  smart  appearance  and  orderly 
behaviour  of  the  30,000  men  concentrated  in  Bangkok 
for  the  review  which  was  one  of  the  most  interesting 
functions  of  the  coronation  celebrations  of  1911, 
considerably  astonislied  the  sceptics  and  encourages  the 
l^elief  that,  under  good  organisation,  the  Siamese 
peasant  may  be  turned  into  a soldier  fully  equal  to  all 
pur[)oses  for  which  he  is  likely  to  be  required. 

Self-defence,  the  preservation  of  internal  order, 
discipline  (more  especially  amongst  the  officer  class), 
and  the  dignity  of  the  Crown,  are  all  arguments 


GOVERNMENT 


251 


strongly  urging  the  maintenance  of  serviceable  warlike 
forces,  and  provided  she  can  afford  to  do  so,  there 
appears  no  good  reason  why  Siam  should  not  place  her 
army  and  navy  on  such  a footing  as  may  seem  best  to 
her.  The  question  of  funds  is,  however,  a difficulty. 
There  are  many  demands  upon  her  purse,  and  irrigation, 
improvement  of  communications  and  other  works 
tending  to  the  development  of  her  natural  resources,  are 
of  the  utmost  immediate  importance  if  her  future  welfare 
is  to  be  assured.  At  present  she  is  trying  to  finance 
both  her  economic  and  her  military  reforms  at  one  and 
the  same  time,  and  there  are  signs  of  an  inclination 
to  starve  the  former  for  the  benefit  of  tlie  latter.  But, 
as  she  lives  up  to  the  very  outside  edge  of  her  income, 
she  is,  of  course,  aware  that  without  further  economic 
development  there  can  be  no  increase  of  funds  for 
military,  or  indeed  for  any  other  purposes  ; and  hence 
it  is  to  l)e  presumed  that  tliose  most  in  favour  of  military 
progress  will  be  amongst  the  last  to  grudge  a pro- 
portionately heavy  expenditure  in  the  near  future  on 
public  works  of  a remunerative  nature. 

The  Ministry  for  the  Interior. — Under  the  old  regime 
the  interior  of  8iam  was  divided  into  a large  number  of 
provinces  or  Mnang,  the  general  administration  of 
which  was  in  the  hands  of  the  chief  or  Clmo  Muang 
whose  ofiice,  subject  to  the  will  of  the  sovereign,  was 
hereditaiu^  In  theory  the  power  of  the  cluef  was  circum- 
scribed, but  in  practice,  more  especially  in  the  more 
distant  provinces,  they  were  subject  to  very  slight 
control.  In  fact  the  authoilty  of  the  king  varied 
inversely  with  the  distance  from  the  capital,  the  chiefs 
of  the  nearest  provinces  being  subjected  to  a certain 
amount  of  interference  from  the  central  Government 
while  those  of  the  districts  furthest  away  or  most 
difficult  of  access  were  almost  independent.  The  Lao, 
Kambodian  and  Malay,  as  also  several  of  the  more 


252 


SIAM 


distant  Siamese  provinces,  were  in  fact  regarded,  either 
in  groups  or  singly,  as  dependencies  rather  than  as 
integral  parts  of  the  kingdom,  though  their  chiefs 
were  of  the  same  official  status  as  those  of  the  more 
important  provinces  nearer  the  capital.  With  the 
consolidation  of  power  and  extension  of  administration 
which  began  with  the  present  dynasty,  the  powers  of 
the  Chao  Miiang  were  gradually  restricted  but  in  many 
cases  the  influence  of  these  officials  and  that  of  their 
families  were  so  strong  within  the  limits  of  their  Miiang 
as  to  render  early  efforts  at  provincial  administration  of 
small  practical  value,  and  the  Central  Government  con- 
tinued without  much  real  control  over  the  rural  districts 
until  the  general  development  of  trade,  and  the  conse- 
quent oj)ening  up  of  the  country  which  marked  the  last 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century,  revealed  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  the  interior,  a disorderly,  not  to  say 
chaotic  state  of  affairs,  not  only  inconsistent  with  oft- 
expressed  intentions  of  good  government,  but  constitut- 
ing an  actual  national  danger,  urgently  demanding 
immediate  attention.  The  necessily  for  developing  the 
general  revenues  of  the  kingdom  to  keep  pace  with  the 
increasing  demands  of  an  expanding  administration, 
was  also  becoming  acute  at  this  time  and  furnished 
another  pressing  reason  for  reform  in  the  rural  districts. 
Thus,  when  the  Ministry  for  the  Interior  was  constituted, 
it  became  at  onee  the  centre  of  a considerable  activity. 
The  new  department,  which  assumed  many  of  the  duties 
and  traditional  x^owers,  as  well  as  the  titles,  of  the  old 
Civil  Division  of  the  Left,  was  naturally  one  of  the  most 
important  liranches  of  the  Government,  a condition 
wliich  was  furtlier  emphasized  liy  the  apxiointment  of 
H.U.IL  Prince  Damrong  as  its  liead.  This  prince,  than 
whom  tlie  CroAvn  lias  no  more  active  sipiporter  in  all 
schemes  for  tlie  advancement  of  the  country  and  for  the 
emancixiation  of  its  jieople,  had  already  made  a study  of 


GOVERNMENT 


253 


the  question  of  provincial  reform,  and  in  1889-90  had 
visited  Burma  and  other  neighhonring  countries,  the 
local  conditions  of  which  were  somewhat  similar  to  tliose 
of  Siam,  and  had  investigated  the  systems  of  administra- 
tion in  force  there.  The  first-fruits  of  these  studies  and 
immstigations  appeared  in  1894,  when  the  old  Muang  or 
provinces  were  grouped  togetlier  to  form  a nnml)er  of 
administrative  divisions  to  which  the  name  of  Monton 
was  applied,  and  in  the  appointment  of  a Resident  High 
Commissioner  to  the  charge  of  each,  with  authority  over 
the  Chao  Muang  and  acting  under  the  orders  of  the 
Minister.  From  that  moment  the  re-organisation  and 
regulation  of  the  wide  powers  of  the  Chao  Muang  l^egan 
in  earnest.  The  province  Avas  split  np  into  a group  of 
districts  or  Ampo,  each  under  a district  ofiicer  or  Nai 
Ampl),  and  hy  an  excellent  law,  which  was  j^assed  in 
1896,  the  Acdiole  system  aatis  consolidated  and  completed 
hy  the  introduction  of  village  government  modelled  to 
some  extent  upon  that  in  force  in  Burma.  The  title  of 
Chao  Muang  Avas  altered  to  Pu  Wa  Rachakan  Muang 
AAdiich  may  he  translated  ‘Governor,’  and  Ihe  semi- 
hereditary  nature  of  the  ofiice  Avas  abolished,  except  in 
the  Northern  Lao,  the  Ivamhodian  and  the  Malay 
provinces,  Avhere  the  hereditary  ollice  and  the  title  of 
Chao  AAms  alloAved  to  continue.  Tlie  Avay  of  this  far- 
reaching  reform  aauxs,  hoAvever,  neither  easy  nor  rapid. 
To  find  men  competent  to  fill  the  neAV  positions  Awas  at 
first  a matter  of  extreme  difficulty.  TJie  selection  of 
High  Commissioners  aavts  not  ahA^ays  fortunate,  and 
seAmral  changes  Avere  necessary  during  the  first  years. 
In  the  appointment  of  governors  and  district  officers  the 
importance  of  local  influence  Avas  fully  recognised  and 
Avherever  possible  the  Chao  Muang  Avere  retained  in  the 
first  office  AAdiile  the  officials  aa4io  had  occupied  the 
position  of  Kromakan,  (a  sort  of  Justice  of  the  Peace), 
under  them,  AAmre  usually  selected  for  the  second  ; hut 


254 


SIAM  * 


many  of  these  country  gentlemen  were  unwilling  to 
surrender  their  former  privileges  and  freedom  from 
restraint,  while  others  were  quite  incapable  of  perform- 
ing the  duties  now  demanded  of  them,  and  these  were 
consequently  compelled  to  retire  into  private  life  in 
favour  of  more  amenable  and  more  able  men.  To  meet 
the  shortage  of  officers  became  for  the  time  the  chief 
object  and  anxiety  of  the  Minister.  Young  men  of  good 
parentage  and  when  possible,  the  sons  of  the  old  govern- 
ing families  of  the  provinces  who  constituted  in  effect 
the  real  aristocracy  of  the  country,  were  persuaded  to 
enter  into  training  for  the  service  of  the  Interior  and 
youths  of  no  particular  family  but  who  had  done  well  in 
the  schools  were  eagerly  snapped  up  for  the  same  purpose. 

The  office  of  the  Ministry  for  the  Interior  became  a 
forcing  house  for  the  production  of  officials,  and  racial 
distinctions  were  not  allowed  to  stand  in  the  Avay  of  any 
who  entered  it.  Siamese,  Chinese,  Kambodians,  Mon, 
Malays,  all  were  alike  passed  through  the  mill,  the  best 
of  the  out-turn  being  drafted  off  to  man  the  various 
departments  of  the  Ministry.  A serious  difficulty  was 
caused  by  the  reluctance  of  the  young  men  to  consign 
themselves  to  permanent  residence  in  the  country 
districts.  As  almost  the  whole  of  the  upper  and  middle 
classes  resided  in  the  capital,  all  the  amenities  of  life 
were  naturally  concentrated  there,  and  even  the  best 
provincial  towns  were  singularly  lacking  in  such 
pleasures  and  distractions  as  apjDealed  to  the  Siamese 
temperament  and  habits.  Moreover  there  existed  an 
idea,  firmly  rooted  in  the  customs  of  the  past,  that 
absence  from  Bangkok  and  the  immediate  precincts  of  the 
Court  meant  sure  neglect  and  official  oblivion,  and  that 
for  a man  of  ambition  to  immure  himself  in  the  jungle 
was  mere  foolishness.  Thus  even  when  the  men  had 
been  found,  it  was  not  always  easy  to  ^^ersuade  them  to 
take  up  the  appointments  which  offered,  or  to  prevail 


GOVERNMENT 


255 


upon  them  to  stay  for  any  length  of  time  at  their  distant 
posts,  and  it  was  not  nntil  the  indncements  offered  hy 
good  pay  and  prospects  of  ultimate  promotion  to  rank 
and  to  a measure  of  power  had  been  made  very  clear, 
nor  nntil  good  houses  had  been  provided  at  ont-stations, 
that  this  reluctance  has  recently  been  to  some 
extent  overcome.  At  jiresent  the  Civil  Service  of  the 
Interior  is  in  a healthy  condition,  and  is  largely  recruited 
from  the  Civil  Service  College,  Avhence  the  young  men 
who  pass  out  proceed  to  appointments  as  District  Officers, 
from  ^vhich  position  they  may  rise  in  the  ordinary  course 
of  events  to  be  governors  with  the  further  prospect  of 
ultimately  attaining  to  the  rank  of  High  Commissioner. 
Patronage,  however,  is  by  no  means  a thing  of  the  past 
and  appointments  are  still  occasionally  made  lor  reasons 
other  than  approved  merit,  some  of  which  are  anything 
but  advantageous  to  the  public  service.  But  such  errors 
are  becoming  fewer  and  as  the  properly  trained  officials, 
who  are  naturally  all  young  men,  acquire  experience 
and  become  more  nnmerons,  tlieir  claims  to  the  more 
responsible  posts  will  doubtless  receive  the  fullest 
consideration. 

A matter  of  scarcely  less  importance  than  the  organisa- 
tion of  the  general  administration  was  the  provision 
of  an  adequate  police  force.  With  the  time-hononred 
custom  of  collusion  between  officials  and  professional 
criminals  strong  in  the  land,  from  which  indeed  many 
of  the  old  chiefs  derived  considerable  profit,  it  was 
scarcely  to  be  expected  that  any  genuine  effort  to 
suppress  crime  entirely,  woidd  be  made  by  the  country 
justices  of  the  old  regime,  even  at  the  urgent  command 
of  the  king.  But  by  creating  a niono])oly  of  this  form 
of  industry  the  chiefs  no  doubt  exercised  a sort  of 
check  and  restricted  evil-doing  to  the  ranks  of  their 
own  dependents,  for  it  was  very  noticeable  that  with 
the  reorganisation  of  rural  officialdom  and  the  removal 


256 


SIAM 


of  the  chiefs  or  the  curtailment  of  tlieir  powers  and 
authority,  violent  crime  of  every  description  increased 
to  an  alarming  extent  and  very  soon  passed  altogether 
beyond  the  control  of  the  authorities.  To  meet  this 
dilhculty  tlie  Minister  for  the  Interior  devised  a scheme 
for  the  maintenance  of  a force  of  gendarmerie  in  each 
division  which,  while  leaving  the  investigation  of  crime 
and  prosecution  of  criminals  in  the  hands  of  the  Civil 
Ollicials,  would  2)rovide  the  latter  with  a weapon  by 
which  their  orders  could  ]je  enforced  and  their  authority 
made  manifest  in  all  parts  of  their  jurisdiction. 

With  a Danish  military  officer’s  assistance,  the  nucleus 
of  such  a body  was  organised,  the  Minister,  with  the 
caution  which  marked  all  his  reforms,  restricting  its 
action  during  the  experimental  stage  to  one  DiAusion 
only,  Avhere  it  could  be  carefully  AAmtched  and  subjected 
to  such  alterations  as  circumstances  might  require. 
The  great  al^ility  and  extraordinary  eiierg}^  and  personal 
activity  of  the  Danish  Inspector-General  from  the  first 
secured  the  success  of  the  innovation  and  after  a period 
of  trial,  the  sphere  of  action  of  the  force  was  gradually 
extended,  until  it  now  includes  practically  tlie  Avhole  of 
the  country  controlled  by  the  Ministry  for  the  Interior. 

MeaiiAvliile  the  gendarmerie  force  has  groAvn  to  a 
contingent  8000  strong,  Avith  officers  draAvn  partly  from 
the  army  and  x)artly  trained  in  the  force,  with  a school 
for  non-commissioned  oflicers  at  Phrai)atiim  a few 
miles  out  of  Bangkok,  and  Avith  a backing  of  fifteen 
or  tAventy  Danish  officers,  the  \Adiole  Avell  armed  and 
discixilined,  adequately  housed  in  barracks  and  out- 
stations  all  over  the  country  and  of  an  efficiency  Avhich, 
though  doubtless  capable  of  further  improvement,  has 
enabled  the  authorities  materially  to  check  crime.  In 
Northern  Siam  AAdiere  a large  proportion  of  the  force  is 
stationed,  it  Avas  severely  tested  during  the  trouble  AAutli 
the  Shans  in  1902  Avhen,  though  still  very  young,  it 


GOVERNMENT 


257 


acquitted  itself  satisfactorily.  In  1909  wlieii  co-operat- 
ing witli  tlie  Frencli  antliorities  on  the  eastern  frontier 
it  successfully  ‘ rviped  the  eye  ’ of  the  French  ‘ Tirailleurs 
Annamites/ a handful  of  ineii  under  the  personal  leader- 
ship of  the  Ins])ector-General  capturing  a gang  of  noted 
border  cut-throats,  which  had  eluded  and  harassed  a 
strong  French  force  for  many  months.  In  selecting  the 
commander  of  tlie  gendarmerie,  who  now  holds  the  rank 
of  Major-General,  H.R.II.  the  Minister  gave  a notable 
instance  of  that  acumen  and  judgment  of  character 
which  have  been  such  strong  factors  in  the  success  of 
his  administration  and  'whicli  have  filled  his  depart- 
ment with  men  as  earnest  and  of  as  high  abilit}^  as  are 
to  be  found  in  the  country.  The  peninsular  Division  of 
Puket  was  the  last  to  be  brought  under  the  Gendarmerie 
organisation.  By  reason  of  the  necessit^y  for  controlling 
the  Chinese  mining  population,  this  Division  for  man_y 
years  possessed  a Police  force  of  its  own  and,  in  the 
days  when  the  gendarmerie  was  still  an  experiment 
only,  this  Puket  force  was  reorganised  and  made 
efficient  b}^  an  officer  of  the  Burma  Police.  For  some 
time  therefore,  it  v:as  considered  unwise  to  interfere 
with  the  Police  of  this  Division  but  the  situation  was 
something  ol  an  anomaly  and  when  the  gendarmerie 
liad  been  well  ]>roved  elsewhere  and  found  equal  to  the 
difficulties  likely  to  be  encountered  at  Puket,  the  old 
force  was  coiwerted  and  ])laced  in  line  with  that  ol  the 
other  Divisions. 

The  reorganisation  of  the  revenues  of  the  Interior 
presented  many  difficult  prolilems,  of  whicli  not  tlie 
least  was  the  ([uestion  as  to  vrlietlier  the  Ministiw  for 
the  Interior  or  that  of  Finance  should  inaugurate  and 
control  the  said  reorganisation.  Formerly  the  revenues 
were  partly  under  the  control  of  the  Ministry  of  Agri- 
culture, which  managed  them  exceedingly  liadly,  and 
partly  under  the  Finance  Department,  which  contentecl 
itself  with  leasing  them  wheneA^er  possible  to  specidative 

ii 


258 


SIAM 


Chinamen  and  other  capitalists,  a course  which  com- 
bined much  hardship  to  the  people  with  no  small  loss 
to  the  Treasury  and  was  clearly  incompatible  with 
sound  administration.  When  the  necessity  for  fiscal 
reform  in  the  interior  became  most  pressing,  the 
Ministry  of  Agriculture  was  incapable  of  making  the 
required  effort  at  improvement  while  the  Ministry  of 
Finance  was  in  possession  neither  of  the  requisite 
knowledge  of  local  conditions  nor  of  the  means  to 
acquire  that  knowledge,  and  hence,  after  much  dis- 
cussion and  some  heartburnings.  His  Majesty  confided 
this  very  important  undertaking  to  the  Minister  for  the 
Interior.  Prince  Damrong  at  once  gave  his  attention 
to  the  matter  and  after  a considerable  time  spent  in 
making  inquiries  and  gathering  information  from  his 
rural  officers,  started  an  experimental  Revenue  Office 
in  one  of  the  Divisions,  to  work  under  the  orders  of  the 
High  Commissioner.  Numerous  experiments  were 
tried  here  with  the  advice  and  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  an  English  officer  whose  services  had  been 
lent  by  the  Government  of  India  to  Siam.  The  upshot 
was  that,  after  sufficient  experience  had  been  gained, 
a Revenue  Dei)artment  was  organised,  subordinate  to 
the  Ministry  for  the  Interior,  with  its  headquarters  in 
Bangkok  and  with  bram^li  offices  in  every  Division, 
Province  and  District  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Ministry,  the  whole  under  the  general  direction  of  the 
aforesaid  English  officer  and  with  the  intimate  co-opera- 
tion of  High  Commissioners,  GoA^ernors  and  District 
Officers.  This  Department  has  proved  a signal  success. 
One  by  one  the  difficult  problems  of  fiscal  reform  have 
been  taken  up  and  solved  ; the  land,  fisheries,  capitation 
and  otlier  taxes  have  been  regulated  by  new  laws,  and 
after  ten  years  work  the  revenues  accruing  from  the 
rural  districts  have  been  A^ery  greatly  increased,  AAdiile 
the  actual  incidence  of  taxation  upon  the  peoj^le  is  very 
little  heavier  than  formerly,  the  improvement  being 


GOVERNMENT 


259 


largely  due  to  a better  adjustment  of  the  taxes  and  to  a 
complete  revolution  in  the  manner  of  collection.  The 
success  of  this  department  is  a tribute  to  the  teachable- 
ness of  the  Siamese.  In  the  person  of  the  Director  the 
Prince  has  one  of  his  most  able  assistants,  who  lias 
trained  over  three  hundred  officers  forming  the 
personnel  of  his  department  and  has  inspired  them 
with  a spirit  of  industry  and  enthusiasm  which  makes 
them  a Yerj  efficient  and  reliable  body  of  men. 

The  Royal  Forest  Department  and  the  Department  of 
Mines  and  Mineralogy,  though  in  theory  forming 
parts  of  the  Ministry  of  Lands  and  Agriculture  have 
for  some  years  been  attached  to  the  Ministry  for  the 
Interior.  Their  organisation  and  the  work  which  they 
are  accomplishing  in  the  countiy  are  described  elsewhere 
in  this  book  and  all  that  is  necessary  to  say  here  is 
that  both  have  received,  from  the  date  of  their  inception, 
the  earnest  care  of  the  Minister  and  his  assistants,  and 
that  with  the  advice  of  English  experts  of  approved 
ability  and  experience  they  have  been  built  up  into 
efficient  and  profitable  sections  of  the  Government 
Service,  containing  in  their  ranks  a number  of  young 
Siamese  trained  in  the  best  Forest  and  Mining  schools 
and  now  acqidring  experience  in  practical  Avork  AAdiich 
will  in  time  fit  them  to  undertake  all  the  responsibilities 
of  their  special  branches  of  the  Government  Service. 
In  1009  the  Department  of  Mines  Avas  restored  to  the 
Ministry  of  Lands  and  Agriculture. 

Finance. — The  high  official  of  Siam  Avho  managed 
the  finances  and  kejit  the  money  of  the  State  AA*as 
abvays  one  ol  the  greatest  dignitaries  in  the  land,  more 
especially  in  the  old  days  Avheii  the  State  purse  AA^as  the 
king’s  purse,  and  AAdien,  a large  part  of  the  reA^enues 
being  in  kind,  the  officer  Avas  to  all  intents  and  purposes 
the  manager  of  a great  monopoly  of  merchandisej  a 
position  AAdiich  gave  him  the  control  of  much  of  the 
internal  alfairs  as  Avell  as  of  all  the  foreign  trade  of  the 


260 


SIAM 


coimtiy.  For  tlie  last  reason  tlie  Finance  Minister  was 
well  known  to  tlie  European  mereliants  trading  witli 
tlie  country  in  tlie  17tli  and  18tli  centuries,  as  the 
highest  personage  with  whom  they  came  in  contact. 
The  office  carried  with  it  a long  and  imposing  title 
abbreviated  for  ordinary  use  into  Flira  Klang,  which 
Europeans,  after  the  careless  manner  of  the  times, 
corrupted  into  ‘Barkalong.’  With  the  gradual  re- 
linquishing of  trade  by  the  sovereign  and  the  increase 
of  farmed  monopolies,  the  grip  of  the  chief  financial 
authority  wpoii  the  country  was  somewhat  relaxed  and 
in  course  of  time  the  officer  became  little  more  than 
a Chief  Controller  of  the  royal  funds.  Later  on,  as  the 
offices  of  a partially  organised  government  came  into 
existence,  the  poAver  to  collect  certain  moneys,  sufficient 
for  their  maintenance,  Aiaas  usually  Amsted  in  the  chiefs 
of  such  offices,  Avho  thenceforth  managed  their  oAvn 
financial  affairs,  a course  AAdiich  continued  doAvn  to  the 
latter  part  of  the  19th  century. 

When,  hoAvcA^er,  the  Senabodi  or  Council  of  Ministers 
Avas  decreed  in  1892,  this  system  AAns  altered  and  the 
^ilinistry  of  Finance  began  to  gather  to  itself  the 
reA^enues  derived  from  every  service  and  to  assume 
control  over  the  expenditure  of  the  different  Depart- 
ments. An  Accounts’  Department  Avas  instituted  and 
a ljudget  of  estimated  revenue  and  expenditure  became 
an  annual  compilation.  The  appearance  of  the  Budget, 
hoAvevei*,  rarely  synclirouised  Avith  the  beginning  of  the 
3'ear  and  as  the  Treasury  Avould  disburse  no  funds  not 
duly  and  ]Ai’operly  sanctioned,  tlie  Heads  of  Depart- 
ments took  to  utilising  revenues  Avliich  should  liaA^e 
been  ])aid  in  to  the  Treasury,  in  order  to  keep  the 
administration  from  coming  altogetlier  to  a standstill 
and,  so  soon  as  the  budget  was  passed,  drcAv  out  in  a 
lump  sum  the  Avhole  amount  allotted  for  the  year, 
lodging  the  same  in  one  of  the  local  banks,  AAdience  it 
could  be  obtained  without  trouble  as  required.  Thus, 


GOVERNMENT 


261 


in  spite  of  tlie  Ministry  of  Finance,  each  Department 
had  a ^^rivate  lianking  account,  disposing  of  its  funds 
in  such  manner  as  seemed  to  it  most  suitable,  and 
going  its  Avay,  untrammelled  by  anytliing  in  the  shape 
of  audit.  The  pecidiarities  of  this  system  were 
revealed  when,  shortly  after  the  apxoointment  of  an 
English  Financial  Adviser  in  189G,  the  Heads  of  De- 
partments were  prevailed  upon  to  conduct  their  financial 
operations  through  a Comptroller-Clenerars  Department 
under  the  Ministry  of  Finance  ; for  when  the  Amrions 
banking  accounts  Avere  closed  and  the  balances  ■'•efunded 
to  Government,  these  latter  were  found  to  be,  in  many 
cases,  A^ery  large  and  to  contain  allotments  for  office 
establishments,  buildings  and  sup])lies  of  all  kinds, 
budgetted  for  in  years  gone  by,  and  drawn  from  the 
State  Treasury  but  ncAmr  expended. 

During  the  first  fcAV  years  of  the  Ministry  of  Finance, 
though  much  money  Avas  undoubtedly  lost  owing  to 
lack  of  control  over  the  sanctioned  expenditure,  the 
disbursements  were  kept  Avell  Avithin  the  national 
income  ])y  the  simple  expedient  of  refusing  sanction 
for  anything  in  the  sha]ie  of  ncAv  and  unaccustomed 
outlajx  The  demands  of  an  expanding  administration, 
hoAvcA-er,  soon  became  too  insistent  to  be  further  Avith- 
stood,  and  the  attention  of  the  financial  authorities 
necessarily  became  directed  toAvards  increasing  the 
revenue  as  Avell  as  merely  checking  exxAenditure.  The 
reorganisation  of  the  numerous  sources  of  income  AAdiich 
Avere  under  the  control  of  the  Ministry  of  Finance  aaxts 
therefore  taken  seriously  in  hand  and  to  such  good 
purpose  that  the  annual  total,  including  the  receipts 
from  the  Ministry  for  the  Interior,  increased,  betAveen 
the  years  189G  and  1903,  by  a hundred  per  cent  and 
I his,  not  so  much  l)y  enhanced  taxation  as  by  improA^ed 
administration  and  by  the  ademption  of  measures  to 
secure  the  ])ayment  into  the  9h-easury  of  all  moneys 
collected.  Daring  the  same  time,  liOAA^ever,  the  national 


262 


SlAJVl 


expenditure  rose  by  leaps  and  bounds,  and  befoie  the 
end  of  that  period  had  more  than  overtaken  the  revenue 
receipts,  so  that  the  annually  recurring  surplus  of  the 
years  before  the  era  of  progress  was  converted  into  a 
frequent  deficit.  Since  1903  the  revenue  has  increased 
b}^  a further  twenty-five  per  cent,  but  the  expenditure 
has  kept  pace  with  it,  and  that  in  spite  of  considerable 
loans  which  have,  from  time  to  time,  been  taken  for  the 
building  of  railways  and  other  remunerative  Public 
Works.  Tlie  position  at  the  present  moment  is  not 
without  its  serious  aspect,  for  the  limit  of  revenue 
expansion  appears  almost  to  have  been  reached,  whilst 
the  Government,  once  embarked  upon  a more  lavish 
s ale  of  expenditure,  stands  committed  to  a progressive 
increase  for  some  time  to  come,  the  mere  possibility  of 
any  retrenchment  of  which  is  naturally  looked  upon 
with  extreme  disfavour. 

A few  years  ago  the  Government  began  to  be  somewhat 
disturbed  by  the  fact  that  nearl}^  half  the  State  Revenues 
were  being  derived  from  the  sale  b}^  auction  of  the 
opium,  liquor  and  gambling  monopolies.  Extension  of 
commerce  brought  with  it  increasing  facilities  for  the 
smuggling  of  opium  and  the  financial  equilibrium 
was  frequently  threatened  by  the  failure  of  the  opium 
farmers  to  pay  their  revenue,  while  even  the  densest 
intellects  began  to  perceive  that  the  system  encouraged 
drinking  and  gambling,  took  large  sums  of  money,  the 
profits  of  the  Chinese  mono])oly-holders,  out  of  the 
country  to  China,  therel)y  draining  the  country  of  its 
wealth,  and  deliberately  led  the  already  sufficiently 
thriftless  populace  into  waste  and  extravagance.  An 
informal  Anti-Gambling  League  came  into  existence 
and  owing  to  the  representations  of  its  leaders,  licensed 
gambling  was  at  length  sto])ped  everywhere  except  in 
Bangkok  city,  where,  however,  (uving  to  recent  im- 
provements in  steam  commnnication  by  rail  and  river 
between  the  Ckxpital  and  the  rural  districts,  the  revenues 


GOA^ERNMENT 


263 


from  gambling  liaA^e  increased  someAvliat.  Later  on  it 
was  decided,  not  without  some  misgiving,  to  discontinue 
the  sale  of  liquor  and  opium  farms  and  to  establish 
GoA^ernment  Departments  to  control,  and  gradually  to 
reduce  the  traffic  in  these  articles.  The  substitution 
of  the  Government  Department  has  only  partially  been 
carried  out  with  regard  to  liquor,  but  the  opium  has 
been  taken  over  entirely  and  a moderate  increase  in  the 
land  reA^enue  has  been  imposed  to  proAude  a substitute 
for  the  State  revenues  thus  lost.  The  net  result  hither ;.o 
has  been  that  gambling,  opium  and  liquor  noAv  provide 
less  than  a third  of  the  total  annual  income  of  the  State, 
a proportion  AAdiich  Avill  doubtless  be  further  reduced 
AAdien  the  revision  of  treaties,  noAv  accomplished  Avith 
some  of  the  PoAvers  and  under  negotiation  Avith  others 
enables  the  Government  to  adjust  its  Customs  duties  in 
fair  proportion  to  the  AA^ealth  and  commerce  of  the 
country. 

Banking. — In  the  year  1888  the  groAvth  of  Siamese 
trade  led  to  the  establishment  of  a regular  branch 
of  the  Hongkong  and  Shanghai  Banking  Corporation 
at  Bangkok.  Up  to  that  time  the  only  banking  facilities 
available  AA^ere  the  agencies  of  the  aforesaid  Corporation 
and  of  one  Indian  and  one  Chinese  bank  in  the  hands 
of  European  local  trading  firms.  No  paper  currency 
existed  except  a feAv  semi-priA^ate  notes  issued  by 
King  Mongkut,  sealed  Avith  his  oaaui  private  seal  and 
noAv  greatly  A^alued  as  curiosities,  and  the  only  means 
of  meeting  the  financial  demands  of  foreign  trade 
AA^ere  the  import  and  the  export  of  ^Mexican  and  Spanish 
siUer  dollars  and  of  Indian  rupees.  The  Hongkong 
and  Shanghai  Banking  Coiq'^oration  soon  acrpiired  a 
good  standing  and  in  1893  a branch  of  the  Chartered 
Bank  of  India,  Australia  and  China  AA\as  also  established 
in  Bangkok,  to  be  folloAA-ed  in  1897  by  a branch  of 
the  French  Banque  cle  VIndo-Chinc.  All  three  banks 
are  noAV  doing  a large  business  in  financing  foreign 


264 


SIAM 


trade,  in  private  loans  and  deposit  accounts  and  in 
tlie  money  affairs  of  tire  Government,  wliicli  maintains 
a floating  balance  with  each  of  them.  There  is  no 
doubt  whatever  that  the  banks  bave  done  a gieat 
deal  to  assist  the  growth  of  commerce  since  they 
were  established,  but  as  receptacles  for  the  earnings 
of  the  people  of  the  country  itself  they  have  achieved 
next  to  nothing,  and  in  fact  they  decline  to  receive 
money  on  deposit  from  any  person  who  is  unacquainted 
with  some  European  language. 

In  the  year  1904  a Siamese  Commercial  Bank  was 
inaugurated  which  it  was  hoped  would  gradually 
extend  its  operations  from  Bangkok  to  the  provincial 
towns,  where  at  present  there  are  no  banking  facilities 
of  any  kind.  The  institution  has  not,  however,  been 
a great  success  except',  apparently,  for  its  originators 
and  its  operations  have  hitherto  been  confined  to  the 
Metropolis.  For  the  assistance  of  traders  in  the  interior 
the  State  Treasury  in  Bangkok  is  by  way  of  selling 
drafts  on  the  treasuries  of  the  provincial  towns  but 
simplicity  of  procedure  is  not,  unfortunately,  one  of 
the  stiong  points  of  the  Treasury  Department  and 
traders  make  small  use  of  the  system,  preferring  to 
carry  money  about  the  country  and  to  accept  the 
conse(|iient  risk  of  loss,  rather  than  take  the  safer 
but  more  tedious  course. 

Currencij. — In  many  of  the  remoter  districts  of 
Indo-ndna,  and  on  the  borders  of  South-West 
China,  lumps  of  silver,  the  shape  and  weight  of 
Avhich  vary  in  different  localities,  are  still  in  use  as 
money,  though  the  British  Indian  rupee  and  to  a 
iess  extent  the  French  piastre,  are  rejdacing  them  by 
degrees.  Some  of  these  uncouth  coins  are  simply 
casts  of  the  small  iron  pans  in  Avhich  the  metal  has 
been  melted,  others  are  small  bars  cut  and  twisted 
into  a mo]-e  or  less  uniform  shape  and  others  again 
are  small  jfieces  of  metal  of  uniform  weight  cut  off 


GOA^EKNMENT 


265 


from  a tliiii  cylindrical  bar  of  silver.  Al^ont  a century 
ago  the  money  of  Siam  consisted  of  rounded  lumps 
of  gold  or  silver,  roughly  resembling  small  sections 
of  cylindrical  l)ars,  bent  by  hammering  until  the 
ends  approach  each  other,  and  stamped  on  the  convex 
surface  vdth  a Siamese  crown  or  a ‘C/za/xr’  or  other 
royal  emblem.  These  coins  were  nsnally  made  of  four 
sizes  in  silver,  the  commonest  about  equal  to  a rupee 
in  weight  and  tlie  others  a half,  a quarter,  and  an 
eighth  of  the  same.  The  first,  called  hat  was  known 
to  Enro23eans  as  a ‘Tical,’  the  second  as  song  sailing,  the 
third  as  sailing,  and  the  fourth  as A piece  called 
tamlung  equal  to  four  hat  was  also  made  but  only  in 
small  numbers.  Coins  of  similar  shape,  but  of  gold, 
represented  higher  values,  one  being  equal  to  twent^y, 
another  to  ten,  and  another  to  five  hat. 

Early  in  the  19th  century  flat  silver  coins  were  made 
in  Bangkok,  but  these  were  more  in  the  nature  of  an 
experiment  than  of  a genuine  currency  and,  though 
now  of  interest  as  curiosities  Avere  never  seriously  put 
into  circulation.  In  1801,  however,  a small  mint  for 
coining  flat  money  was  set  up  in  the  Palace  and  in 
the  following  year  flat  coins  corresj)onding  to  all  the 
above-mentioned  values  were  issued,  bearing  on  one 
face  a Royal  Siamese  cinwii  and  on  the  other  the 
effigy  of  an  elephant  snrronnded  by  the  ‘ Chahr  ’ or 
sacred  wheel.  This  issue  of  flat  gold  coins  was  A^ery 
restricted,  and  as  it  Avas  found  that  they  soon  dis- 
appeared from  circulation,  being  melted  doAvn  and 
made  into  jeAA^ellery,  the  issue  AA^as  stopped  altogether, 
and  the  silver  tical  became  the  most  general  form  of 
currency.  Moreover  it  aaus  difficult  to  procure  gold 
for  minting  purposes  AAdiile  silver  could  apA’ays  be 
obtained  by  the  simple  process  of  melting  doAvn  silver 
dollars  imported  from  Singajiore,  three  of  AAdiicli  made 
fiA'e  ticals,  and  thus  Siam  naturally  fell  into  line 
AA-itli  the  other  States  of  the  East  and  Far  West  as  a 


266 


SIAM 


country  with  a silver-standard  currency.  Large  sums 
of  money  were,  and  still  are,  considered  in  so  many 
cliang,  an  amount  not  represented  by  any  single  coin 
but  consisting  of  eighty  ticals.  Old  gold  coins  both 
round  and  flat,  are  now  much  in  request  for  making 
cufl-links,  watch-pendants  and  other  jewellery  and 
it  is  probable  that  a good  many  are  manufactured  by 
enterprising  Jewellers  to  meet  this  demand.  Formerly 
the  only  currency  of  lower  value  than  the  silver  fuang 
or  one  eighth  of  a tieal  was  represented  by  cowrie 
shells,  or  hia,  of  which  several  hundred  were  required 
to  equal  one  tical,  but  about  the  date  when  flat  silver 
money  was  first  made,  a copper  coinage  was  introduced 
consisting  of  the  song  pliai,  the  the  att  and  the 

solot  or  'lot,  equal  respectively  to  half,  a quarter, 
an  eighth  and  a sixteenth  of  a fuang.  Of  these  the 
phai  and  the  att  came  into  common  use,  but  not  very 
many  of  the  other  two  were  put  into  circulation. 

From  time  to  time  new  machinery  and  dies  were 
introduced  and  gradually  the  coinage  improved.  In 
the  last  reign  the  effigy  of  the  king  first  appeared  on 
both  silver  and  copper  coins,  the  reverse  side  of  the 
former  being  filled  witli  the  Siamese  Royal  arms  and 
of  the  latter  with  a full  length  figure  of  a Thewada  or 
angel,  seated  in  an  attitude  similar  to  that  of  the 
Britannia  on  an  English  j)enn}g  but  with  the  trident, 
shield  and  other  details  of  the  latter  represented  by 
Siamese  equivalents. 

It  has  long  been  realised  that  the  division  of  the 
tical  into  sixty-four  parts,  though  identical  with  the 
system  of  coinage  division  in  use  in  British  India,  is 
but  a clumsy  arraugement,  and  more  than  once  the 
Government  has  proposed  to  introduce  a subsidiary 
coinage  based  on  the  decimal  system,  A copper  coin 
equal  to  one  hundredth  part  of  a tical  was  made  in 
large  quantities  to  the  order  of  a former  Minister  of 
Finance  but  circumstances  prevented  its  being  brought 


GOVERNMENT 


267 


into  nse  until  after  it  had  lain  in  the  Treasury  vaults 
for  many  years.  The  Gold  Standard  Law,  1908,  how- 
ever, legalised  this  coin,  called  satang,  the  Pali  for  ‘a 
hundredth  part,’  and  also  nickel  coins  of  five  and  ten 
satang  value,  all  of  which  were  put  into  circulation 
in  that  year.  The  att  copper  coinage  was  not  simnl- 
taneonsl}^  withdrawn  or  demonetised  and  a certain 
amount  of  confusion  prevailed  while  the  two  systems 
remained  in  force  together  hut  matters  soon  righted 
themselves  and  the  decimal  subsidiary  coinage  is  now 
established.  The  satang  coins  of  all  three  denominations 
are  of  a uniform  design,  consisting  of  a ‘ Gliahr'  or 
sacred  wheel  on  one  face  and  the  words  'Siam  Raj' 
with  the  value  of  the  coin  on  the  other.  The  coins 
are  pierced  through  the  centre,  which  permits  of  their 
being  threaded  on  a cord  for  convenience  of  carriage 
and  of  counting. 

In  the  year  1902  a new  royal  mint  was  built  and 
equipped  at  considerable  expense  but  owing  to  defective 
management  the  first  issues  of  coin  from  it  were  not  so 
good  as  those  from  the  old  establishment.  Matters 
have  improved  since,  however,  and  the  silver  money 
now  produced  is  good  though  perhaps  still  capable  of 
improvement. 

Exchange. — When  tlie  value  of  silver  began  to 
deteriorate,  the  currency  of  Siam  depreciated  in  harmony 
with  that  of  other  silver-standard  countries.  As  the 
deterioration  continued  and  there  appeared  less  and 
less  likelihood  of  any  consideral)le  future  recovery,  the 
Government  found  it  necessary  to  follow  in  the  footsteps 
of  India  and  Japan  and  to  take  measures  to  counteract 
the  depreciation.  Accordingly  in  1902  the  free  coinage 
of  silver  was  stopped  and  the  sale  of  ticals  for  gold  was 
arranged  for  by  law  at  prices  which  have  lieen  gradually 
enhanced  until  the  value  of  the  tical  has  been  raised 
from  elevenpence  halfpenny,  the  natui-al  value  of  the 
silver  contained  in  it  in  1902,  to  one  shilling  and 


26S 


SIAM 


sixpence  and  one  eighth  at  which  artificial  value  it  is 
for  the  moment  station aiw,  though  the  Government  does 
not  guarantee  that  it  will  not  go  yet  higher.  In  support 
of  this  exchange  polic}^  the  Government  maintains  a 
reserve  fund  of  about  one  million  sterling.  With  this 
it  purchased  from  the  hanks  in  the  years  1907,  1908  and 
1909,  over  eleven  million  ticals  which  were  withdrawn 
from  circulation.  In  1909  and  1910  the  banks  bought 
back  the  greater  part  of  this  silver  at  the  Government 
rate  and  the  sterling  fund  now  stands  practically  intact, 
available  for  future  operations.  Results  of  this  exchange 
policy,  are  the  improved  credit  of  Siam  abroad  and  the 
saving  of  large  sums  in  the  purchase  by  the  Govern- 
ment of  machinery,  arms  and  otlier  supplies  in  Europe. 
Unfortunately  the  adoption  of  the  policy  has  not  hither- 
to brought  much  internal  advantage,  for  the  price  of 
foreign  imported  goods  has  not  yet  dropped  appreciably, 
as  it  was  expected  would  be  the  case,  while  exporters  of 
rice  and  other  commodities  find  themselves  unable  to 
pay  the  same  number  of  ticals  for  their  produce  as 
they  used  to  do.  It  is  early,  however,  to  judge  of 
the  effects  of  the  measure  and  it  may  yet  be  that 
matters  will  adjust  themselves  and  that  the  country 
will  beiiefit  by  it  as  much  as  the  Governmeut  has 
certainly  done.  The  Gold  Standard  Law  of  1908 
which  decrees  the  above  exchange  policy,  provides  also 
for  the  establishment  of  a gold  currency  and  the  issue 
of  a gold  coin  called  a ‘ tot,'  a Siamese  corruption  of 
the  Pali  word  ‘Das,’  (in  English  ‘ Ten,’)  ecjual  in  value 
to  ten  ticals,  but  it  would  seem  that  the  stability  of 
the  tical  is  not  yet  sufficiently  assured  to  make  this 
step  altogetlier  safe,  and  the  coin  though  minted  in 
small  c[uantity  kas  not  yet  been  issued. 

Paper  Currency. — Many  years  ago  the  Hongkong  and 
Shangliai  Banking  Corpoiation  obtained  permission 
from  the  Government  to  is-ue  bank-notes  and  later 
the  Chartered  Bank  of  India,  Australia  and  China, 


GOVERNMENT 


269 


and  the  Banc/ne  de  V Indo-Cliine  were  accorded  similar 
privilege.  The  notes,  thongh  never  declared  legal 
tender,  were  soon  established  in  the  confidence  of  the 
public  of  Bangkok,  bnt  outside  the  capital  they  were 
looked  upon  with  some  snspicion  and  were  frequently 
not  negotiable.  In  the  year  1902  the  privilege  of  the 
Banks  was  withdrawn  and  the  notes  were  gradually 
recalled,  being  replaced  by  a Government  paper-currency 
issued  by  the  Treasury  in  accordance  with  Royal  Decree. 
Currency  notes  of  five,  ten,  twenty,  one  hundred  and 
one  thousand  ticals  value,  were  put  into  circulation  and 
speedily  became  very  popular  thronghont  the  country, 
so  much  so  that  at  the  present  date  over  seventeen 
million  ticals’  worth  are  in  circulation.  Cash  reserves 
to  the  extent  of  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  total  issue 
value  are  held  in  the  strong  rooms  of  the  Treasury, 
Avhile  twenty-five  per  cent  is  iiwested  in  various  foreign 
securities. 

Loans. — When  the  desiral)ilit}^  of  railway  construction 
first  dawned  upon  Siam  the  question  of  contracting  a 
foreign  loan  was  also  raised  and  thereafter  was  periodi- 
cally discussed  at  considerable  length  during  seimral 
years.  The  ([uestion  of  funds  was  not,  however,  of 
immediate  urgency  and  railway  making  began  and  was 
continued  until  some  twenty-five  millions  of  ticals  had 
been  spent  upon  it  out  of  ordinary  revenue.  Meanwhile 
the  Government  received  much  advice  on  the  subject 
and  among  other  financial  experts  Lord  Cromer  gave 
an  opinion  whi(di  was  to  the  effect  that  the  financial 
position  of  Siam  appeared  a very  strong  one,  and  that 
having  no  national  del)t  and  no  very  i)ressing  reason 
to  incur  one,  it  woidd  1)e  well  for  tlie  count  it  to  avoid 
boiTOVsfing.  Other  councils  prevailed  in  the  long  run, 
however,  and  in  lOOo  the  sum  of  one  million  sterling 
was  borrowed  in  London  and  elsewliere  abroad  at  Oott 
and  carrying  interest  per  cent  per  annum,  by  which 
means  the  considerable  sums  of  money  which  had  been 


270 


SIAM 


annually  paid  out  of  revenue  for  railway  construction, 
became  available  for  increases  and  improvements  in  the 
Army,  Navy,  Interior  and  other  Departments  of  Govern- 
ment. Rather  more  than  three  years  later,  in  the 
beginning  of  1907,  a further  loan,  this  time  of  three 
millions  sterling,  was  raised  with  much  success  in 
London,  Paris  and  Berlin  at  98  and  bearing  interest  at 
4^  per  cent  per  annum,  which  monc}^  after  providing  the 
sum  required  for  the  exchange  reserve  fund,  was  likewise 
largely  devoted  to  railway  construction  and  finally,  in 
1909,  an  agreement  was  entered  into  with  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  British  Federated  Malay  States  for  a sum 
of  four  millions  sterling  to  be  advanced  in  instalments 
by  the  latter  Government  at  par  and  bearing  interest  at 
4 per  cent,  to  enable  Siam  to  build  a railway  through 
the  whole  length  of  Southern  Siam  to  link  up  with  the 
railway  of  British  Malaya.  Thus  the  national  debt  of 
Siam  at  the  present  moment  amounts  to  rather  more 
than  four  millions  sterling  and  five  years  hence  will  be 
about  eight  millions  which,  considering  that  her  annual 
income  is  about  four  millions,  is  a considerable  responsi- 
bility. Her  credit  is,  lioweA^er,  quite  equal  to  the  stress 
and  unless  she  encounters  a series  of  bad  agricultural 
years,  she  should  have  small  difficidty  in  carrying  this 
or  even  a heavier  amount  of  debt. 

Weights  and  Measures. — The  unofficially  accepted 
standard  weights  of  Siam  are  simply  the  silver  coinage. 
The  unit  of  weight  is  the  hat  or  tical  which  equals  236 
grains  weight,  or  nearly  half  an  ounce  Avoirdu- 
pois, and  herein  may  perhaps  be  found  the  derivation  of 
the  word  tical  which  has  puzzled  many  people,  for  it 
would  seem  ]>robable  that  the  word  was  brought  to  the 
country  by  merchants  accustomed  to  trade  on  the 
East  coast  of  India,  Avliere  the  TiJrul,  a weight  almost 
exactly  equal  to  that  of  the  tical  is  still  in  common  use. 
Idle  Tihid,  is  also  mentioned  in  Syme’s  Mission  to  Ava, 
as  a weight  in  use  in  Burma  at  the  time  dealt  with  in 


GOVERNMENT 


271 


that  work.  The  cliang  which,  as  has  been  said  above, 
equals  eighty  bat  or  about  forty  ounces  Avoirdupois, 
is  a unit  of  weight  in  retail  trade,  but  the  Chinese  catty 
equal  to  half  a chang  is  also  much,  perhaps  more 
commonly,  used.  Fifty  chang  make  one  hap,  known 
in  commerce  as  a picul  (Malay  Pihul),  the  common 
weight  of  wholesale  trade  and  equal  to  133y  lbs.  Avoir- 
dupois. The  Siamese  word  hap  means  ‘ to  carry  weights 
on  the  shoulder  balanced  at  either  end  of  a carrying- 
stick,’  hence,  a ‘man’s  load.’  The  silver  coins  of  value 
below  that  of  the  hat  supply  a series  of  smaller  weights. 
Weights  of  brass  in  the  form  of  a bird  are  made  for 
use  in  trade  with  ordinary  scales,  but  these  are  not  so 
much  employed  as  the  balance  known  in  neighbouring 
British  territory  as  the  dacliing,  a graduated  rod  having 
a pan  at  one  end  and  a string  close  to  it  l)y  which  the 
contrivance  is  suspended,  and  with  a weight  sliding  on 
the  rod,  the  whole  working  on  the  same  principle  as  the 
Fairbairn  weighing-machine.  For  w^eighing  quantities 
smaller  than  can  be  dealt  with  by  the  fuang,  that  is  less 
than  one  eighth  of  a hat,  the  red  and  black  seeds  of 
Ahriis  precatorius  or  ‘ crab’s-eye  bean’  (in  Siamese  hun) 
are  used,  each  of  which  is  very  roughly  equal  to  two 
grains.  The  employment  of  this  seed  for  Aveighing 
small  quantities  of  gold,  precious  stones,  drugs,  etc.,  is 
not  confined  to  Siam,  being  common  also  to  India, 
Burma,  and  other  Eastern  countries. 

Linear  measure  is  based,  as  has  at  one  time  been  the 
case  in  practically  every  part  of  the  Avorld,  upon  the 
length  of  certain  parts  of  tlie  human  body,  but  Avhereas 
in  Europe  at  any  rate  the  measures  liaA^e  long  been 
standardised,  in  Siam,  so  far  as  the  law  is  concerned, 
each  man  may  be  a standard  unto  himself.  Tlie  least 
measure  of  length  is  the  anu-hrahict,  two  of  Avhich  equal 
a krahiet.  Four  krahiet  make  a niu  or  a finger-width, 
and  twelve  niu  amount  to  one  keup  or  hand-span. 
Two  keup  make  a sank  or  cidjit,  the  length  from  the 


272 


SIAM 


elbow  to  the  end  of  tlie  fingers,  and  fonr  of  these  make 
a im,  the  full  stretch  of  a man’s  outspread  arms. 
Twenty  wei  make  a sen  and  fonr  hundred  sen  make  a 
yot.  For  purposes  of  land  measurement  former  kings 
have  attempted  to  standardise  the  linear  measure  by 
establishing  a ‘ Royal  Sauk,^  possibly  the  length  of  their 
own  culnt,  but  such  standards  were  never  rigidly 
enforced  and  for  private  business  a salesman  is  entitled 
to  use  such  measure  as  he  can  induce  customers  to 
accept.  Some  years  ago,  however,  the  Ro}^al  Survey 
Department  adopted  a ird  equal  to  two  metres  and  this 
measure,  according  to  which  the  surveys  of  the  country 
have  been  made,  is  now  in  fairly  general  use,  though  it 
has  not  been  legalised.  For  Square  Measure  the  unit 
is  the  square  wd,  one  hundred  of  which  are  equal  to  one 
ngan.  Four  ngan  equal  one  rai  or  two-fifths  of  an  acre. 

The  measure  of  capacity  ])egins  with  kliam  men  or 
handful,  four  of  which  equal  a cluing  awn  and  two 
cluing  awn  equal  a llutnan  or  half  coconut-shell,’ 
supposed  to  be  about  one  and  a half  pints. 
Twenty  tlianan  equal  a tliang  or  bucket,  and  twenty-five 
thanan  make  a sat  or  basket.  One  hundred  tliang  or 
eighty  sat  make  up  one  kwien  or  cartload.  The 
difficulties  of  the  rice  trade  are  considerabl}^  enhanced 
l^y  the  fact  that  each  buyer  keeps  his  own  thanan,  the 
largest  half-coconut-sbell  he  can  find,  or  a wooden 
measure,  which  it  is  his  main  object  in  life  to  convince 
sellers,  contains  no  more  tlian  the  proper  quantity, 
while  sellers  on  the  other  hand  strive  to  defeat  the 
buyer  with  a coconut-shell  of  diminutive  proportions. 
The  cubic  measure  used  in  the  teak  trade  is  peculiar, 
the  unit  consisting  of  the  yok,  sixty-four  sank  in 
length,  one  sank  Avide  and  one  nin  deep,  or  about 
eleven  and  a half  English  cubic  feet. 

In  the  midst  of  the  reforms  of  recent  years  the 
Siamese  Croveniment  has  not  been  unmindful  of  the 
fact  that  reorganisation  of  the  national  Aveights  and 


GOVERNMENT 


273 


measures  is  a matter  of  urgency.  Three  times  in  the 
last  dozen  years  or  so  has  a royal  Commission  been 
appointed  to  inquire  into  the  matter  and  report  to  the 
King-  as  to  the  direction  which  reform  should  take. 
Advice  almost  invariably  pointed  towards  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Metric  System  but  for  one  reason  and  another 
many  years  were  allowed  to  pass  before  a definite  resolve 
was  arrived  at.  At  the  end  of  the  year  1911,  however, 
His  Majesty  was  pleased  to  decree  that  the  Metric  System 
shall  take  the  place  of  the  old  forms  of  weights  and 
measures  as  soon  as  the  change  can  be  made  and  it  is 
expected  that  a law  to  that  effect  will  be  promulgated 
soon.  The  reform  will,  of  course,  benefit  trade 
immensely  for  it  need  scarcely  be  said  that  the  business 
of  the  country  is  considerably  hampered  by  the  absence 
of  all  legalised  weights  and  measures. 

Divisions  of  Time.-— Tlieve  are  three  eras  in  use  in 
Siam,  the  Puttha-Sakarat,  the  Chula-Sakarat  and  the 
Ratanakosindr-sok.  The  first  is  the  Religious  Era  and 
dates  from  the  attainment  of  Nirvana  by  the  Buddha  in 
B.c.  543,  the  second  is  the  Civil  Era  dating  from  a.d. 
638,  said  to  have  been  invented  by  the  hero  king  Phra 
Arunawati  Ruang  of  Sukhothai  l)ut  more  probably  in- 
troduced into  Siam  from  Burma,  where  it  is  still  in  use, 
and  the  third  is  the  new  Civil  Era,  dating  from  the 
establishment  on  the  throne  of  the  present  dynasty  in 
A.D.  1781,  but  devised  and  brought  into  use  onhAwenty- 
one  years  ago,  in  a.d.  1889.  Thus  the  year  a.d.  1910  is 
2453  of  the  Puttha  Sakarat,  1271  of  the  Chula  Sakarat, 
and  129  of  the  Ratanakosindr-sok.  The  first  is  used 
chiefly  in  connection  with  religious  matters,  the 
second  is  the  popular  form  of  reckoning,  and  the  third 
is  the  official  method  of  computation  and  is  rapidly 
replacing  the  second  in  general  use.  There  is  a fourth 
era,  the  Maha  Sakarat,  an  old  Brahman  system,  once  in 
use  throughout  Further  India  but  now  practically 
unknown  in  Siam  except  to  students  of  ancient  literature 
s 


274 


SIAM 


where  mention  of  this,  and  of  }^et  other  still  older  and 
now  practically  forgotten  eras,  appears  occasionally. 

The  years  are  grouped  into  cycles  of  sixty  years 
divided  into  suh-cycles  of  twelve,  to  each  year  of  which 
latter  the  name  of  an  animal  is  given,  and  also  into 
decades  numbered  from  one  to  ten.  Thus  the  name  of 
each  of  the  twelve  animals  recurs  five  times  in  a cycle 
but  each  time  has  a different  decade  number  attached  to 
it.  The  Modern  Ratanakosindr  Era  corresponds  as  re- 
gal'd s the  length  of  its  montiis  and  the  number  of  its 
days  with  the  Gregorian  Calendar.  The  year  begins 
on  the  1st  April  and  the  twelve  months  are  called  after 
the  signs  of  the  Zodiac. 

The  months  according  to  the  ancient  eras  are  lunar, 
being  reckoned  from  moon  to  moon.  Those  of  the 
Chula  Sakarat  are  known  simph'  as  First  month. 
Second  month,  and  so  on  up  to  the  Twelfth  Month, 
the  Xew  Year  beginning,  however,  with  the  Fifth 
month.  The  year  consisting  of  only  354  days,  an 
additional  month  is  added  every  third  year  to  keep 
the  system  in  correspondence  with  the  actual  seasons. 
The  nights  of  the  month  are  numbered  and  not  the 
da3"s,  and  are  divided  into  two  sets  of  fifteen  ; the  first 
following  tlie  waxing  and  the  second  the  waning  moon. 
The  nights  of  the  waxing  are  called  keun  and  those  of 
the  waning  ram. 

ddie  week  is  of  seven  da_ys,  to  which  names  culled 
from  Brahman  Mythology  and  bearing  a certain  relation 
to  those  of  the  European  system,  have  been  given. 

The  twenty-four  hours  of  each  day  are  considered  in 
two  equal  parts,  that  is,  as  twelve  hours  of  day  and 
twelve  of  night.  The  hours  of  day  begin  after  six  a.m. 
and  are  numbered,  ‘one  hour  morning,’  ‘two  hours 
morning,’  etc.,  up  to  six  which  is  usually  called  simply 
mid-day  without  a number,  then,  ‘ one  hour  afternoon,’ 

‘ two  hours  afternoon,’  etc.,  to  six  or  ‘ nightfall.’  From 
‘ nightfall  ’ the  night  begins,  seven  p.m.  of  the  European 


GOVEKN^IENT 


275 


system,  being  called  ‘one  lionr  night,’  eight  p.m.,  ‘ two 
hours  night,’  and  so  on  until  twelve  hours  night  or 
six  a.m.  is  reached.  The  word  ‘ hour  ’ is  known  as 
mong  if  a day  hour,  and  as  thum  if  a night  hour.  The 
hours  of  nine  p.m.,  midnight,  three  a.m.  and  six  a.m. 
are  also  commonly  called  the  first,  second,  third  and 
fourth  watches,  or  yam  ninig,  song  yam,  sam  yam,  and 
yam  rung.  An  hour  is  divided  into  sixty  minutes  or 
nati  consisting  of  sixty  winati  or  seconds.  Also  six 
minutes  are  sometimes  called  hat,  but  this  last  expres- 
sion is  not  often  heard. 


The  Capital 

The  authority  of  the  Minister  for  the  Capital,  or  of 
‘ Local  Government,’  as  the  Department  is  rather 
quaintly  styled  in  English,  runs  throughout  the  city 
of  Bangkok,  its  suburbs  and  the  neighbouring  rural 
districts,  extending  to  the  sea  on  the  south  and  in 
other  directions  to  the  borders  of  the  surrounding 
Divisions  of  the  Interior.  Subordinate  to  this  Ministry 
are  Civil  Police,  Sanitary,  Revenue  and  Harbour 
Departments  and  also  a general  administrative  staff, 
similar  to  that  of  a Division  of  the  Interior,  by  which 
the  ordinary  routine  government  of  the  city,  and  the 
six  suburban  provinces  which  lie  round  it,  is  carried  on. 

Police. — The  Civil  Police  Force  of  Bangkok  was  in- 
stituted in  A.D.  1862  in  the  form  of  a body  of  fifty-five 
officers  and  constables,  mostly  Malays  and  Indians,  placed 
under  the  command  of  an  Englishman  and  located 
in  barracks  close  to  the  old  fort  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Khlong  Kut  Mai.  Passing  through  many  vicissi- 
tudes, the  Force  grew  in  size  if  not  in  efficiency  and 
by  1892  had  become  a body  of  1500  men  quartered 
in  stations  in  different  parts  of  the  town  and  suburbs 
and  consisting  chiefly  of  men  of  Siamese  race,  with 


276 


SIAM 


a Siamese  commissioner  and  other  officers.  The  Force 
was  very  inefficient  at  this  time.  Many  of  the  con- 
stables were  the  slaves  of  the  higher  officers  and 
were  entirely  without  training’  even  of  the  most  rudi- 
mentary description.  The  sense  of  extreme  respect, 
not  to  say  servility,  which  every  Siamese  entertains 
towards  those  whom  he  recognises  as  his  ‘ betters  ’ 
made  them  chary  of  interfering  with  the  doings, 
however  nefarious,  of  persons  of  good  family  or  con- 
nections or  having  interest  in  high  places,  while  the 
feelings  of  contempt  which  they  shared  with  their 
countrymen  towards  all  foreigners,  led  to  frequent 
abuse  of  their  authority  where  Europeans  or  Asiatic 
proteges  of  the  Treaty  Powers  were  concerned  ; 
abuse  which  caused  a reluctance  on  the  part  of 
Foreign  Representatives  to  recognise  the  Police 
Department  as  a responsible  institution. 

It  w^as,  however,  the  overbearing  attitude  towards 
foreigners  which  proved  the  ultimate  making  of  the 
Force.  His  Excellency  the  German  Minister  to  Siam 
in  the  year  1890,  was  in  the  daily  habit  of  driving 
a dogcart  furiously  through  the  crowded  streets, 
scattering  the  traffic  in  all  directions  and  frequently 
damaging  the  property  of  other  peojile  and  his  own 
carriage  also.  At  length  his  almost  daily  collision 
occurred  near  a police  station,  whence  at  the  noise 
of  the  consequent  altercation  there  issued  a few 
curious  constables.  A heated  and  wdldly-gesticulating 
European  meeting  their  sight,  he  was  at  once  arrested 
and  dragged  within  the  station,  where,  in  spite  of 
emphatic  assertion  of  his  identity  in  broken  English, 
he  was  detained  (an  attempt  to  break  away  being 
checked  by  the  tap  of  a truncheon  on  his  bald,  per- 
spiring crown)  until  a jj^^issing  European  acquaintance 
explained  the  situation  in  the  vernacular,  and  ob- 
tained his  release.  The  upshot  of  this  contretemps 
was  the  engagement  of  an  experienced  English  police 


GOVERN]\IENT 


277 


officer  from  Ikirma  to  command  the  force,  followed 
by  a reorganisation  which  in  time  became  complete 
in  ever}^  sense.  The  Bangkok  police  are  now  a 
remarkably  good  body  of  some  3500  men,  well  clothed, 
civil  spoken,  moderatel,y  Avell  drilled  and  of  a passable 
average  intelligence.  Service  was  voluntaiy,  until, 
in  the  year  1909,  the  force  was  placed,  for  recruiting, 
under  conditions  somewhat  similar  to  those  of  the 
military  forces,  since  when  A^acancies  have  been  fdled 
b}^  conscription  mainly,  the  recruits  passing  through 
a course  of  instruction  in  the  police  school  before 
entering  upon  their  duties.  Officers  are  selected  by 
examination  after  a period  of  study  in  a special  school 
which  is  very  popular  with  the  youtli  of  the  middle 
class.  The  Avork  of  the  Department  now  compares 
AA^ell  with  that  of  the  police  of  other  large  Eastern 
cities,  and  is  a credit  to  the  countiy  as  Avell  as  to  the 
highly  gifted  and  enthusiastic  English  officer  AAdio 
has  commanded  the  force  under  the  orders  of  the 
Minister  for  the  last  eight  3^ears. 

The  Sanitary  Department  came  into  existence  in 
1897.  Like  the  police,  it  has  had  its  Aucissitudes,  and 
at  first  Avas  not  of  much  account.  It  is  now  an  efficient 
institution  charged  Avith  the  cleansing  and  repairing 
of  roadAA’ays,  the  disposal  of  refuse  from  houses,  the 
control  of  markets  and  of  food  supplies,  the  carrying 
out  of  quarantine  and  otlier  regulations  against  the 
spread  of  disease,  and  furnished  with  a Board  of 
hlealtli  Office,  a Bacteriological  Laboratory  and 
seA^eral  hospitals.  3die  scientific  and  medical  side 
of  the  Department  is  controlled,  under  the  general 
supervision  of  the  Director  (Siamese),  by  a European 
(British)  Doctor  of  5tedicine  of  high  attainments 
and  long  experience  in  the  country,  assisted  by  a 
numerous  stall. 

The  Engineering  branch  of  tliis  Department,  at 
the  head  of  AAdiich  is  a French,  engineer  assisted  by 


278 


SIAM 


several  compatriots  as  well  as  by  a strong  Siamese 
Staff,  is  in  charge  of  the  maintenance  and  repairs 
of  the  roadwa}^s  in  the  city,  and  to  it  has  been 
entrusted  the  carrying  out  of  a scheme  for  supplying 
13angkok  Avith  potable  water.  This  question  of  a 
water  supply  has  been  for  many  years  under  considera- 
tion and  is  one  which  very  nearly  concerns  the  welfare 
of  the  city  for,  though  water  is  at  all  times  plentiful 
at  Bangkok,  it  is  ahva,ys  of  a bad  quality  and  during 
the  dry  season,  Avliich  sometimes  lasts  for  six  months 
of  the  year,  is  so  impure  as  to  cause  a very  heavy 
death-roll  from  cholera,  dysentery  and  other  diseases. 

Many  schemes  have  been  proposed  from  time  to 
time,  but  the  systems  advocated  AA-ere  either  found 
unsuitable  or  too  expensiA^e,  and  the  matter  Avas  con- 
stantly postponed.  About  the  year  1903,  boring  for 
artesian  AA^ells  AA^as  tried  and  as  AA'^ater  AA^as  found  at 
depths  varying  from  400  to  600  feet,  it  AA^as  thought 
that  here  Avas  a solution  of  the  difficulty.  It  was 
found,  hoAA^CA^er,  that  the  cost  of  boring  Avells  sufficient 
to  supph^  the  AAdiole  city  Avould  be  A^ery  great,  and 
the  quality  of  the  Avater  proA^ed  on  analysis  to  be 
Amriable  and  at  the  best  not  good  enough  to  Avarrant 
the  expenditure.  A certain  number  of  AA^ells  AA^ere 
sunk,  and  these  have  proA^ed  of  some  local  benefit 
but  the  (juestion  of  a general  Avater  supply  still 
remained  unanswered.  Inquiries  into  various  schemes 
Avhich  had  been  carried  out  elsewhere,  Avere  therefore 
resumed  and,  after  consideralole  further  discussion 
it  Avas  determined  to  adopt  the  system  AAdiich  had 
been  successfully  applied  at  Alexandria  and  else- 
Avhere.  The  ]dians  Avere  draAAui  and  estimates  AA^ere 
framed.  It  aaus  found  that  a sufficient  supply  of 
fresh  AAOiter  coidd  be  obtained  at  a ]K)int  on  the  Menam 
Chao  Pliaya  River  some  twenty  miles  north  of  the  city, 
and  that  an  open  canal  coidd  be  constructed  from 
that  point  leading  to  a point  just  north  of  the  town, 


GOVERNMENT 


279 


viience  tlie  water,  after  being  filtered  and  ozonised 
could  be  transmitted  over  the  greater  part  of  the  city, 
at  a cost  of  about  three  million  ticals,  or  £227,000. 
The  scheme  and  the  funds  for  its  execution  were  sanc- 
tioned l)y  Royal  Decree  in  the  year  1909  and  the  work 
is  now  in  hand.  It  is  expected  that  the  water- works 
will  be  formally  opened  towards  the  end  of  1912. 

The  Bangkok  Revenne  Department,  established  in 
1898,  has  grown  ont  of  a small  Ollice  organised  in 
that  year  for  the  collection,  by  direct  Government 
agency,  of  various  taxes  which  had  hitlierto  been 
farmed.  It  is  now  responsi])le  for  the  collection 
of  some  five  millions  of  ticaJs  annually  and,  vrorking 
on  lines  similar  to  those  of  the  Revenue  Department 
of  the  Interior,  has  improved  the  position  of  the 
tax-payer  and  at  the  same  time  l^rought  much  profit 
to  the  State.  The  Harbour  Master’s  Department  is 
the  modern  substitute  for  the  ancient  ohice  of  (liao 
Tall,  or  ‘ Lord  of  the  Landing  Place,’  the  holder  of 
which  was  miscalled  by  early  travellers  by  the  J\lala3' 
title  of  Shall  Bandar.  Before  the  advent  of  the  treaties 
the  holder  of  this  office  exercised  much  power  over 
foreign  traders  but  with  the  introduction  of  extra- 
territorial rights  it  was  shorn  of  most  of  its  privilege 
and  prestige  and  gradualh^  sank  into  insignificance. 
In  the  absence  of  laws  and  regulations  for  the  control 
of  the  Port,  the  enacting  of  which  had  been  several 
times  attempted,  only  to  be  frustrated  by  the  opposition 
of  the  foreign  Consuls,  the  Department  liad  practically 
no  duties  to  perform  beyond  the  maintenance  of  lights 
at  the  river  mouth  and  on  the  bar,  which  it  performed 
very  badly,  with  the  assistance  of  a small  steamboat, 
the  Gladys,  once  the  well-appointed  jileasure  ^vacht 
of  a former  Lord  Lonsdale ; tins,  having  somehow 
found  its  Avay  into  the  possession  of  the  Siamese 
GoA'ernment,  lingered  on  in  an  unlovely  old  age,  011I3" 
prolonged  by  constant  tinkering.  In  the  year  1905 


280 


SIAM 


however,  a Harbour  Regulation  was  at  length  assented 
to  by  the  Consuls  and  was  made  law,  whereupon  the 
Department  was  galvanised  into  action  and  undertook 
the  control  of  the  shipping  in  the  Port,  the  regulation 
of  berths,  maintenance  of  fairways  and  the  registration 
of  all  Siamese  craft  both  sea  and  river  going,  which 
duties  it  now  performs  with  fair  efficiency. 


Justice 

Previous  to  the  institution  of  the  Council  of  Ministers, 
one  member  of  which  was  the  Minister  of  Justice,  with 
powers  extending  in  theory  to  the  control  of  all  the 
Courts  of  Justice  in  the  Kingdom,  the  Head  of  each 
Department  of  the  Government  had  under  his  orders  a 
Court  or  Courts,  in  which  the  affairs  of  persons  under 
his  authority  were  dealt  Avith,  and  of  which  the  chief 
himself  acted  as  first  Judge  Avhenever  he  chose  to 
exercise  his  functions.  In  the  interior  each  Governor 
or  Provincial  Chief  had  his  own  courts  Avherein  cases 
Avere  decided  in  such  manner  as  he  might  desire  rather 
than  in  accordance  Avith  equity  or  with  the  LaAv.  The 
active  officials  of  the  courts  AA^ere  generally  persons  of 
mean  birth,  mere  satellites  of  the  chief  under  Avhom 
they  served,  men  of  little  education  and  less  legal  know- 
ledge, AAdio  eked  out  a precarious  existence  by  a slavish 
obedience  to  the  will  of  their  master,  receiAUTig  as 
payment  a small  portion  of  the  fines  they  levied  or  an 
occasional  share  of  the  money  paid  by  parties  as  the 
price  of  their  decisions.  Rut  though  the  corrupt  state 
of  the  judicature  Avas  notorious,  the  procedure  Avas 
Avrapped  up  in  innumerable  forms  aiid  observances 
intended  to  produce  a superficial  appearance  of  honesty, 
and  the  duties  of  the  courts  Avere  divided  up  amongst 
a number  of  officials  AAdio  AA^ere  supposed  to  act  as 
a check  upon  each  other  and  to  render  it  impossible  for 


GOVERNMENT 


281 


any  single  individnal  to  control  more  than  one  of  the 
various  stages  of  any  case.  Thus  each  Court  had  its 
Prosecutor  or  Yokrahat,  its  Recorders  or  Tarakarn,  its 
Interpreters  of  the  I^aw  or  Luang  Peng  and  its  De- 
liverer of  Judgment  or  Pu  Prap.  At  the  Capital  there 
was  a kind  of  High  Court,  the  Luk  Kun^  which  controlled 
the  work  of  the  Ministerial  Courts  and  yjassed  judgment 
in  cases  committed  to  it  after  the  taking  of  evidence. 
The  Luk  Kun  was  also  the  Court  of  Appeal,  the  king 
sometimes  sitting  there  in  person  to  hear  appeals.  The 
system  had  its  good  points  hut  Avas  unfortunately  quite 
uiiAvorkalde.  The  numher  of  cases  which  found  their 
Avay  before  the  Luk  Kim  was  comparatively  small,  the 
great  majority  being  kept  pending  in  the  loAA'er  Courts 
until  the  parties,  having  expended  much  mone}^  in 
bribes  and  fees,  usually  effected  some  sort  of  compromise. 
In  criminal  matters  it  Avas  customary  to  detain  both  the 
accused  and  the’  conqilainant  and  sometimes  er^eii  the 
AAutnesses  in  custodA^  pending  trial,  and  only  some  tAA-elv^e 
years  ago,  the  yiroAuncial  j)risons  contained  many  persons 
aaJio  had  got  into  them  as  complainants  in  criminal 
cases  and,  having  failed  to  raise  amongst  their  relatiA^es 
and  friends  the  funds  necessary  to  bring  their  case  to  a 
hearing,  had  remained  in  prison  in  some  instances  for 
maii}^  years,  AA'orking  at  prison  labour  side  by  side  perhay)S 
AAuth  the  A^ery  individual  against  Avhoin  their  complaint 
had  been  made.  All  prisoners  AA^re  fed  by  their 
relatives,  the  Government  not  ])roviding  food.  The 
prisons  Avere  small,  dark  hovels,  alAA'aA^s  overcroAvded 
and  AAuthout  the  smallest  pretensioiis  to  sanitation. 
Discipline,  liOAA^eA^er,  being  practically  non-existent,  the 
prisoners  could  often  arrange  to  sleep  outside  the  jail 
AAdience,  naturally,  frequent  escajtes  I’esulted.  , 

IViih  the  establishment  of  the  IMinistry  of  rlustice  in 
1802,  the  knell  of  the  ancient  judicial  system  Avas 
sounded,  Init  the  introduction  of  reforms  met  AAutli 
many  graA^e  initial  dilhculties  and  it  Avas  not  until  the 


282 


SIAM 


end  of  1894  that  a new  sclieme  of  judicial  administra- 
tion had  been  drawn  np  and  sanctioned  and  new 
Courts  constituted  in  accordance  therewith,  had  been 
established  even  in  Bangkok  town.  The  Conrts  then 
organised  consisted  of  two  ]\[agistrate’s  Conrts,  a central 
Criminal  Court,  a Civil  Ck)iirt,  a Court  of  Foreign 
Causes  for  the  disposal  of  cases  in  which  the  com- 
plainant is  a foreign  subject,  a Court  of  Appeal  and  a 
Supreme  Court  of  Appeal  {San  Diha).  At  the  same 
time  an  Attorney  General’s  Department  was  also  created, 
and  the  Bangkok  prisons  were  taken  over  by  the 
Alinistiy  and  reorganised.  In  1897  a start  was  made 
with  the  extension  of  the  system  beyond  the  Capital. 
Tile  suburban  provinces  Avere  taken  in  hand  first  and 
AAmrk  of  an  experimental  nature  Avas  carried  on  there 
and  at  Aynthia  until  experience  had  been  gained,  errors 
corrected  and  such  improA^ements  introduced  as  ap- 
peared necessary.  The  outlaying  Divisions  Avere  then 
gradually  brought  under  tiie  jurisdiction  of  the  Ministry 
and  its  SAvay  noAv  extends  to  the  AAdiole  kingdom,  Avith 
the  exception  of  the  Malay  Division  of  Patani. 

In  1897,  also,  a Royal  Commission  AA^as  ajipointed 
to  iiiA^estigate  the  condition  of  the  rural  prisons,  AA^iich 
resulted  in  the  clearing  up  of  maiiA^  cases  of  long 
standing  and  in  the  release  from  durance  of  some 
hundreds  of  persons. 

The  Provincial  rludicial  sclieme  as  iioav  in  force 
provides  a Court  at  the  headquarters  of  each  province, 
(Muancj),  and  a central  Court  at  the  chief  toAvn  of  each 
DiAusion,  {Monton).  Appeal  can  be  made  from  the 
Muanrj  Courts  to  tlie  Monton  Court  from  Avliich  further 
appeal  lies  to  a Special  CViurt  of  Appeal  for  the 
ProAuuces,  established  at  Bangkok,  Avlience  final  appeal 
may  be  matte  to  tlie  Supreme  (\mrt.  The  system  AA^orks 
fairly  Avell,  and,  judging  by  the  annually  published 
returns  of  cases  dealt  AAutli,  gets  through  a lot  of  AA^ork. 
It  is,  lioAvever,  very  much  handicapped  by  the  Axant  of 


GOVERNMENT 


283 


intelligent,  trnstwortliy  and  experienced  men  to  fill  tlie 
immeroiis  judicial  offices.  The  law  school  which  was 
inangnrated  some  ten  years  ago,  and  which  has  been 
supplied  with  a series  of  excellent  text-hooks  prepared 
by  the  Minister  himself,  turns  out  exery  year  a dozen 
or  so  of  young  men  wlio  are  considered  eligible  for  the 
junior  judicial  appointments.  These  youths  become 
judges  of  Muavg  Courts,  where,  though  their  judicial 
powers  are  very  limited,  their  position  is  one  of  an 
independence  and  a freedom  from  control  which  some- 
times proves  too  much  for  their  tender  years  and 
inexperience.  The  Monton  judges,  also,  are  frequently 
young  men  taken  from  the  Mnang  Courts  before  tliey 
have  had  time  to  gain  experience.  It  would  be  hardly 
fair  to  condemn  the  whole  system  because  of  such 
statements  as  that  made  in  a recent  official  report  to 
the  effect  that  many  judges  are  sent  to  penal  servitude 
for  dishonesty  in  each  3’ear,  while  a large  number  of 
departmental  punishments  are  annuall}^  inflicted  in  the 
effort  to  promote  habits  of  diligence,  but  it  must  be 
admitted  that  remarks  of  this  nature  show  that  all  is 
not  yet  well  with  the  personnel  of  the  judiciary.  For- 
tunately, however,  the  yearly  batches  of  successful 
candidates  for  the  legal  service  contain  more  wliite  sheep 
than  black,  whilst  among  the  senior  judges,  who  mostly 
occupy  positions  in  the  more  important  Bangkok  courts, 
there  are  many  officers  of  consideral^le  legal  attainments 
and  of  marked  ability  and  probity  ; offic*ers  who  would 
compare  favourably  with  the  members  of  the  justiciary 
of  many  European  countries  ; and  hence  it  is  reasonable 
to  expect  that  as  years  pass  and  ex]  >erience  becomes  more 
widely  extended,  the  survivors  of  the  vigorous  Aveeding 
I'^rocess  evidently  followed  by  the  Ministry  of  rlustice, 
Avill  constitute  a reliable  and  competent  staff  to  Avhom 
the  country  may  look  Avith  confidence  for  an  efficient 
administration  of  the  I.aAv. 

In  his  AA^ork  of  judicial  administration  the  i\linister  is 


284 


SIAM 


assisted  by  an  Eiiglisli  Judicial  Adviser,  and  by  a 
number  of  Legal  Advisers  of  various  European 
nationalities,  who  assist  the  judges  in  their  work  or  act 
as  inspectors  of  the  rural  Courts. 

Side  by  side  with  the  ordinary  Siamese  Courts  are 
the  various  tribunals  to  which  the  subjects  of  foreign 
nations  resident  in  the  country  are  amenable.  Until 
recently  these  tribunals  were  roughly  of  a uniform 
character  and  consisted  of  national  Courts  established 
b}^  the  European  Powers,  by  the  United  States  of 
America  and  by  Japan,  b_y  virtue  of  treaties  with  Siam, 
and  of  International  Courts  in  certain  parts  of  Northern 
Siam,  having  jurisdiction  over  British,  Danish  and 
Italian  subjects.  Of  late,  however,  France  and  England 
have  partially  abandoned  certain  of  their  extra-territorial 
rights,  and  apparently  intend  to  do  so  entirely  as  soon 
as  the  laws  of  the  country  shall  have  been  satisfactorily 
codified,  and  though  this  innovation  must  upon  its 
completion  simplify  matters  immensely,  the  present 
transitory  state  is  one  of  many  complications.  Thus 
the  French  Court  still  exists  to  exercise  jurisdiction 
over  European  French  subjects  ; International  Courts 
in  which  French  and  Siamese  judges  sit  together  and 
administer  Siamese  Law,  attend  to  all  cases  in  which 
Asiatic 'French  subjects,  registered  prior  to  the  signing 
of  the  last  treaty,  are  defendants  or  accused,  while 
Asiatic  French  subjects,  registered  subsequently  to  the 
passing  of  the  treaty,  are  amenable  to  Siamese  law 
administered  in  the  ordinary  Siamese  Courts.  The 
British  (V)urt,  on  the  other  hand,  has  ceased  to  exist 
altogether  and  all  Bi  itish  subjects  are  now  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  lutei’national  (V)urts,  in  which  Siamese 
kludges  sit  to  ailmiiiister  Siamese  law  with  the  assist- 
ance of  a British  adviser,  Avho  automatically  becomes  a 
judge  Avith  poAA^ers  eipial  to  those  of  his  colleagues  A\dien 
the  British  subject  to  be  tried  lia|Apens  to  be  a European. 
A British  Consular  ollicial  may  Avatcli  the  trials  of  all 


GOVERNMENT 


285 


British  subjects  and  has  the  power  to  intervene  in  the 
case  and  even  to  stoj)  it  and  try  it  himself,  if  it  appears 
to  him  that  a miscarriage  of  justice  is  occurring. 

Meanwhile  the  other  foreign  consuls  continue  to 
exercise  jurisdiction  over  their  nationals  and  to  ad- 
minister in  their  Courts  the  laws  of  their  various 
countries,  but  it  is  hox^ed  that  before  long  matters  will 
be  simplified  by  the  abandonment  of  their  extra- 
territorial rights  in  whole  or  in  part  by  all  the  treaty 
powers. 

The  ancient  laws  of  Siam,  in  common  with  those  of 
Burma,  Kambodia  and  in  fact  all  Further  India,  were 
derived  from  the  Hindu  code  of  Manu,  having  been 
framed  in  accordance  therewith  by  sundry  earnest 
rulers  of  remote  times  and  sul)sequently  rearranged 
and  brought  up  to  date  by  their  successors.  The  most 
celebrated  promulgator  of  such  laws,  ahvao’s  excepting 
the  mythically  Amrsatile  Arunawati  Ruang,  Avas  King 
Ramathibodi,  the  soA^ereign  of  Ayuthia,  who  un- 
doubtedly edited  and  issued  numerous  excerpts  from 
the  ancient  sources,  some  of  which  after  500  years  of 
continuous  use  are  still  actiAmly  in  force.  In  collecting 
these  laAvs  and  publishing  tliem  in  book  form  together 
Avith  a selection  of  the  decrees  and  ordinances  of  later 
kings,  H.R.H.  the  Prince  of  Ratburi,  Minister  of  Justice 
from  1897  to  1910,  has  rendered  a service  to  the 
country  which  it  is  impossible  to  OAmr-rate,  for 
though  some  of  the  laws  haA^e  recently  been  repealed 
by  enactments  more  suitable  to  modern  requirements, 
and  mail}"  more  will  disappear  when  the  codes  are 
passed  Avhich  are  going  to  ])lace  the  Siamese  laws  on  a 
modern  basis,  and  do  away  finally  with  tlie7’a/so7i  cVetre 
of  extra-territoriality,  yet  these  compilations  enabled 
the  GoAmrnment  to  carry  out  the  first  reorganisation  of 
the  Courts,  placed  the  julncipal  laws  of  the  country 
Avithin  the  reach  of  the  public,  and  proAuded  text 
books,  Avithout  Avhich  no  systematic  teaching  could  be 


286 


SIAM 


undertaken,  and  to  which  the  Law  School  and  its 
graduates  who,  in  spite  of  faults  are  a vast  imjwove- 
inent  on  the  old  judiciaiy,  are  entirely  owing.  The 
Government,  however,  did  not  merely  content  itself 
with  enforcing  the  ancient  laves  when  reorganising 
the  administration  of  justice,  for  included  in  the 
volumes  published  by  the  ex-Min ister  are  many  enact- 
ments which  have  received  the  Royal  assent  during  the 
last  fifteen  years  or  so,  of  which  a few  of  the  more  notice- 
able are  the  Law  of  Civil  Procedure  ; a Law  of  Evidence ; 
Administration  Decrees  including  Rural  Government, 
Police,  Harbour,  Quarantine,  Pawnshop,  Hackney 
Carriages  and  Anti-Slavery  Ordinances ; Revenue 
Laws ; Mining  Laws ; Land  Registration  Laws  and 
I.iaws  of  Mortage  and  of  Bankruptcy. 

In  1908  a new  departure  was  marked  by  the  passing 
of  a Penal  Code,  the  first  real  step  towards  a regular 
codification  of  the  laws  of  the  country.  This  Code, 
having  been  under  construction  for  many  years,  was 
ultimately  completed  mainly  by  the  energy  of  a very 
able  officer  of  the  French  Diplomatic  service,  engaged 
by  the  Government  as  Legislative  Adviser.  It  has  been 
translated  into  English  and  French,  has  been  submitted 
to  a wide  criticism  and  has  been  universally  recognised 
as  a thoroughly  sound  piece  of  legislation,  reflecting 
credit  upon  its  compilers  and  upon  the  State  which 
has  acquired  it.  The  Codes  of  India,  Japan,  Belgium, 
Italy,  Hungary  and  France  have  all  been  placed  under 
requisition  in  the  compiling  of  the  work,  which  is 
nevertheless  informed  throughout  its  340  sections  with 
the  best  traditions  of  Siamese  law,  and  the  whole  is 
a combination  of  Eastern  and  Western  ideas,  the 
suitability  of  which  to  the  conditions  of  modern  Siam 
is  being  proved  daily  by  application  in  the  Courts. 

The  French  Legislative  Adviser  has  left  Siam  but 
the  Code  Commission  of  which  he  was  the  Head  con- 
tinues its  work  of  a general  codification  of  the  laws,  the 


GOYERXMEXT 


287 


result  to  include,  as  well  as  the  Penal  Code  now  in  force, 
a Criminal  Procedure  Code,  a Civil  Procedure  Code,  a 
Commercial  Code,  a Law  of  Judicial  Organisation,  etc. 
A Company  Law,  an  amended  Bankruptcy  Law  and  a 
Xaturalisation  Law  were  drafted  by  the  Commission 
and  jiassed  by  His  Majesty  in  the  year  1911.  When 
the  Codes  are  complete,  audit  is  hoped  that  another  ten 
years  will  see  all  the  most  important  measures  jiassed 
and  in  operation,  the  recognition  of  the  Siamese  Laws 
by  all  the  Powers  may  be  expected  to  follow,  and  the 
end  of  extra-territoriality  in  Siam  will  be  in  sight. 


Lands  and  Agriculture 

‘The  Ministry  of  Lands  and  Agriculture  of  Siam  has 
been  through  many  vicissitudes.  In  the  old  Royal 
Council,  constituted  in  the  fourteenth  century  a.d.  and 
abolished  in  1892  in  favour  of  the  xiresent  arrangement, 
the  Sixth  Councillor,  who  held  the  title  of  Chao  Phaija 
Polatep,  was  in  charge  of  all  matters  connected  with 
agriculture,  including  the  collection  of  the  land  revenues. 
This  office  became  the  Ministry  of  Lands  and  Agricul- 
ture, or  Krasuang  Kra  set  rat  than,  in  1892,  the  principal 
duties  of  which  were  the  asssssment  and  collection  of 
all  taxes  levied  on  the  land,  and  the  issue  of  title  deeds, 
to  which  was  added  the  control  of  the  Departments  of 
Mines  and  of  Surveys.  The  Ministry,  hovrever,  was 
not  a success.  The  collection  of  the  different  taxes 
on  land  was  in  some  cases  farmed  out  and  in  others 
made  direct  by  Government  agency,  but  both  methods 
were  badly  organised  in  the  beginning  and  worse 
administered  afterwards  so  that  the  revenues  steadily 
decreased  and  soon  fell  into  hopeless  confusion.  At  the 
same  time  the  Mines  and  Survey  Departments,  tliough 
under  European  guidance,  failed  to  give  entire  satisfac- 
tion, while  the  attempts  of  the  i\linistry  to  organise  the 


288 


SIAM 


issue  of  title  deeds  and  a s\^stein  of  land  registration 
were  of  a ridicnlons  futility.  The  Ministry  was  there- 
fore broken  ii])  in  1897  and  its  various  Departments 
transferred  to  the  care  of  the  Minister  of  Finance.  By 
1899  however,  it  liad  beconie  clear  that  reform  wi  h 
regard  to  land  administration  was  a matter  which  would 
brook  no  further  delay,  and  that  amid  the  multiplicity 
of  his  duties  the  Minister  of  Finance  could  not  possibly 
devote  the  time  and  attention  to  the  subject  which  were 
necessaiy.  The  Ministry  of  Lands  and  Agriculture  was 
therefore  resuscitated,  after  remaining  in  abe3^ance  for 
two  3^ears  and  the  Departments  of  Land  Revenue,  Land 
Records,  Surveys,  Mines  and  Forests  were  formally  made 
over  to  it,  though  tlie  new  Minister  assumed  active 
control  over  the  Land  Records  and  Surve}^s  only.  The 
next  few  years  were  occupied  in  preparation  by  cadastral 
survey  and  by  the  compilation  of  suitable  Land  Record 
Regulations,  for  the  establishment  of  a s}- stem  of  Record 
of  Rights  over  land,  and  of  Registration,  and  after 
numerous  experiments  such  a system  was  inaugurated, 
the  first  new  title  deeds  being  issued  in  1901.  Since 
that  date  practically  the  whole  of  Central  Siam  has 
been  cadastrall}^  surve^md,  the  owners  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  most  valuable  rice-j^roducing  lands  of  the 
country  have  Ijeen  provided  with  title  deeds,  and  a 
Department  of  Land  Records  and  Registration,  working 
b,y  methods  allied  to  the  Torrens  System,  has  been 
estal^lished  with  offices  at  various  rural  centres.  Unfor- 
tunatel^y  owing  to  faidty  administration  and,  more 
particularly,  to  insufficient  inspection,  the  settlement 
work  was  neither  so  well  nor  so  promptly  carried  out 
as  it  should  have  been,  and  it  ap|')ears  astliough,  having 
got  the  work  under  way  the  Government  forgot  the 
importance  of  it  in  the  press  of  other  measures  of  reform, 
and  neglected  the  ill-fated  Ministiy  of  Lands  and 
Agriculture  until  it  was  on  the  verge  of  relapsing  once 
more  into  its  old  state  of  confusion  and  incompetence* 


GOVERNMENT 


289 


Circumstances,  however,  have  lately  reminded  the 
country  again  of  the  importance  of  its  land  question, 
hig  changes  in  the  personnel  of  the  Ministry  have 
been  made,  the  title  deeds  and  Registration  work  have 
been  overhauled  and  placed  on  a satisfactory  basis, 
and  steps  have  been  taken  to  give  to  agriculture 
generally  that  attention,  without  which  it  must 
shortly  fail  to  produce  the  wherewithal  to  finance  the 
State. 

The  Royal  Survey  Department,  though  recently  trans- 
ferred from  the  Ministry  of  Lands  and  Agriculture  to 
the  Army  Department,  may  be  mentioned  in  this  place. 
Instituted  in  the  year  1885  with  a small  and  poorly 
trained  staff,  it  has  grown  into  a large  and  important 
branch  of  the  administration,  employing  several  European 
(British)  surveyors  as  well  as  a considerable  number  of 
Siamese,  the  whole  under  the  immediate  control  of  a 
military  officer  as  Director.  At  first  recruited  from  the 
army  and  from  amongst  the  floating  Bangkok  European 
population  of  government  officials,  sea  captains,  business 
men  and  others,  the  staff  was  far  from  efficient  and  the 
work  accomplished  was  not  of  a high  class.  Gradually, 
however,  the  personnel  was  improved  and  of  late  3^ears 
the  Department,  acting  under  the  orders  of  the  Minister 
of  Lands  and  Agriculture,  lias  done  valuable  service 
in  the  making  of  the  cadastral  survey,  which  covers  an 
area  of  8(J0O  square  miles,  and  in  topogra2:>hical  work 
extending  over  some  (>0,000  square  miles.  The  revenue 
survey  work  being  now  practically  accomplished,  the 
Department  is  mainh’  devoting  its  energies  to  topo- 
gra])hical  and  military  work,  and  it  is  lor  this  reason 
that  it  has  recently  been  replaced  under  the  orders  of 
the  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  army,  the  position 
which  it  occupied  for  a brief  period  at  the  time  of  its 
inauguration.  A survey  school  has  been  one  of  the 
adjuncts  of  the  Survey  Department  for  many  years  and 
has  turned  out  a large  number  of  surveyors.  The 
T 


290 


SIAM 


education  provided  was  always  elementary,  however, 
and  not  much  effort  appears  to  have  been  made  until 
quite  lately  to  produce  Siamese  officers  capable  of  high- 
class  work  or  of  holding  responsible  loositions  in  the 
service.  Under  the  new  arrangements  an  effort  is  being 
made  to  officer  the  Department  with  Siamese  and  it  is 
probable  that  Europeans  will  not  be  employed  in  this 
work  for  many  years  longer. 

The  Royal  Irrigation  Department,  one  of  the  branches 
of  administration  attached  to  the  Ministry  of  Lands 
and  Agriculture,  came  into  existence  in  the  year  1904. 
It  was  organised  by  an  officer  of  the  Netherlands  India 
Waterstaad,  lent  by  the  Dutch  Government  to  Siam, 
Avho,  after  holding  the  position  of  Director  for  six  years, 
was  recalled  to  fill  a high  position  in  his  own  service 
and  was  replaced  by  a Siamese  officer.  The  personnel 
of  the  Department  comprises  foreign  engineers  of 
experience  in  irrigation  work  and  also  Siamese  trained 
at  Amrious  engineering  schools  in  Europe.  The  Avork 
Avhich  has  been,  and  is  being  accomplished  by  these 
officers  is  referred  to  in  Part  IV. 

The  De])artment  of  Agriculture  AAdiich  is  about  six 
years  old,  has  not  achieved  very  much.  It  grcAV  out  of 
the  a])pointment  of  several  Japanese  experts  lent  to 
Siam  by  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  of  Japan,  to 
introduce  improvements  in  the  Siamese  methods  of 
silk  groAving,  Avhich  experts,  being  also  trained  agri- 
cultural s])ecialists,  Avere  presently  entrusted  Avith  the 
starting  of  an  experimental  school  of  Agriculture,  in 
addition  to  their  sericultnral  duties.  The  scheme  did 
not  flourish  however,  and  though  the  Department  still 
exisfs,  under  Siamese  control,  it  is  accomplishing  nothing 
of  importance  and  most  of  the  Japanese  experts  liaA^e 
returned  to  their  own  countiy,  leaving  both  sericulture 
and  agriculture  in  Siam  much  as  they  were.  The 
GoA^ernment  has  lately  obtained  the  seiwuces  of  an 
American  expert  to  report  on  the  agricultural  condition 


GOVERNMENT 


291 


of  the  country  and  to  reform  this  important  hut  sadly 
neglected  branch  of  the  public  service. 

A technical  school  under  the  control  of  the  Minister 
of  Lands  and  Agriculture  was  inaugurated  in  the  year 
1907  and  this  institution  has  already  produced  youths 
educated  in  the  elements  of  irrigation  engineering, 
scientific  agriculture,  mining  engineering  and  other 
subjects,  who  have  found  employment  in  Government 
service.  The  standards  of  the  school  are  not  high 
however,  and  better  organisation  will  be  ret[uired 
before  it  acquires  aii}^  real  value  as  factor  in  the  national 
education. 


Public  Works 

The  Ministiy  of  Public  Works  includes  the  Northern 
and  Southern  Railwa}^  Departments,  and  the  Post  and 
Telegraphs  Department,  and  also  a Department  of 
Works  for  the  construction  of  xuiblic  buildings  and 
roads. 

The  Railway  Dej^artments  and  their  work  are  dealt 
with  in  Part  IV,  under  the  heading  of  Transx:>ort. 

The  Postal  system  now  in  vogue  was  inaugurated  in 
1881  under  Royal  decree.  Before  that  date  there  had 
been  no  Government  })ost  olhces,  foreign  mails  from 
Siam  being  sent  thither  from  Singapore  through  the 
instrumentality  of  the  British  Considate.  Letters 
could  be  posted  in  Bangkok  for  the  outer  world,  Imt 
were  stani[)ed  Avitli  a British  Straits  Settlements  stain 
surcharged  with  the  letter  ‘ B,’  specimens  of  which  are 
now  rare,  and  in  conse(pience  much  prized  by  stanq^ 
collectors.  In  1885  Siam  ’joined  the  Postal  Union,  and 
in  that  year  a new  hiAv  aaus  passed  re])lacing  the  first 
decree,  and  x^roAuding  for  the  X)uox)er  organising  of  tlie 
Dex^artment.  An  official  of  the  German  Postal  Service 
Avas  engaged  to  assist  in  the  management  of  the 
Department  and  under  his  guidance,  at  first  as  Adviser 


292 


SIAM 


and  later  as  Director,  it  lias  grown  steadily  until  every 
place  in  the  interior  of  any  importance  at  all  has  been 
brought  into  postal  communication  with  the  capital. 
Much  to  the  regret  of  the  whole  Service,  the  Director 
was  compelled  on  account  of  ill-health  to  resign  his 
position  in  1909,  but  the  Department  is  being  efficiently 
managed  by  his  Siamese  successor.  No  contracts  for 
the  foreign  mails  have  been  made  with  any  foreign 
shipping  company,  the  masters  of  vessels  carrying 
letters  by  jirivate  arrangement  with  the  Government, 
but  for  the  service  of  the  towns  in  Southern  Siam,  the 
Siam  Steam  Navigation  Company,  Ltd.,  enjoys  a con- 
siderable sidisidy,  in  return  for  which  its  steamers 
deliver  mails  twice  every  week  at  all  the  ports  on  both 
sides  of  the  Gulf.  The  total  number  of  letters,  post- 
cards, packages,  etc.,  passing  through  the  post  offices 
in  a year  amounts  to  about  3,500,000  inland  and 
2,000,000  foreign.  There  are  IGO  post  offices  in  the 
country,  and  the  staff  of  the  Department  numbers  about 
700.  The  tariff  for  foreign  postage  is  14  satang  or  about 
2^  pence  per  half  ounce  weight ; inland  postage  is 
unduly  high,  amounting  to  about  12  satang,  or  about 
two  pence  per  half  ounce,  while  letters  posted  in 
Bangkok  for  delivery  there  are  chai-ged  with  C satang,  or 
about  a ])eimy  for  the  same  weiglit.  Before  the  exchange 
value  of  the  local  currency  was  fixed,  difficulty  was 
experienced  in  maintainingforeign  postal  rates  consonant 
with  those  laid  down  by  the  Postal  Union,  and  at  the 
same  time  representing  a fai]  revenue,  and  stamps  of 
new  Amines  AAmre  frequently  issued,  much  to  the  delight 
of  collectors,  l)ut  to  the  confusion  of  the  postal  accounts 
with  foreign  countries.  The  Postal  LaAV  of  1885  AAms 
repealed  by  a more  complete  enactment  passed  in  1897. 

The  first  telegraph  line  of  any  importance  Avhich  aaus 
opened  in  Siam  AAms  that  Avhich  connects  Bangkok  Avith 
Saigon,  the  capital  of  French  Indo-China.  This  line 
Avas  engineered  b}"  the  AAmll-known  M.  Pavie,  at  one 


GOVERNIMENT 


293 


time  engaged  by  tlie  Siamese  GoA^ernmeiit  for  this 
work,  and  since  then  one  of  tlie  first  Frencli  authorities 
on  Siam,  wliose  studies  of  the  Siamese  and  explorations 
of  the  conntiy  have  been  of  immense  value  to  all  who 
are  interested  in  the  ethnology,  archmology,  and  other 
scientific  aspects  of  this  part  of  the  world.  At  the 
present  da}^  Siam  has  two  other  routes  of  telegraphic 
communication  with  the  outside  Avorld  in  addition  to 
that  of  Saigon,  one  of  Avhich  crosses  the  frontier  of 
Burma,  and  thence  reaches  Moulmein,  Avhile  the  other 
enters  the  British  Malay  State  of  Kedah  and  thence 
communicates  Avith  Penang.  Her  inland  telegraph 
lines  link  up  all  the  more  imjAortant  proAuncial  towns 
Avith  the  capital  and  the  total  length  of  line  in  the 
country  exceeds  3,500  miles.  In  its  early  days  the 
Telegraph  Department  Avas  very  badly  organised,  and  a 
great  deal  of  money  Avas  Avasted  in  the  purchase  and 
trans^Aort  of  expensive  material  AAdiich  AA'as  ncA-er  used. 
Union  Avith  tlie  Postal  Department  brought  better 
management,  but  cA'cn  then  the  difficulties  caused  by 
the  AA’ild  nature  of  tlie  country  to  lie  traversed,  the 
profuse  and  ra]iidly  gi-oAving  vegetation,  and  the 
excessiA^e  heat  and  alternating  humidity  and  dryness  of 
the  climate,  delayed  the  initial  construction  Avork,  and 
made  subsequent  maintenance  a matter  of  costly  and 
unremitting  laliour.  So  great  Avere  these  difficulties 
that,  a few  }"ears  ago  they  ap])eared  to  lie  overcoming 
the  energy  of  the  Department,  the  lines  being  jiei-mitted 
to  fall  into  a state  of  disreyiair  AAdiich  rendered  many  of 
them  practically  useless,  lint  a remonstrance  on  the 
]iart  of  the  Foreign  PepresentatiA^es,  made  in  the 
interests  of  trade,  put  the  Department  on  its  mettle,  and 
lirought  about  a great  and  general  improvement  Avhich 
has  since  been  aaMI  maintained. 

The  Posts  and  Telegray)hs’  Department  is  conducted 
at  a loss  to  the  Government,  the  annual  expenditure 
amounting  to  about  £9(),t)00,  and  tlie  receipts  to  £92,000. 


294 


SIAM 


The  recurring  deficit  is,  however,  being  reduced  and 
will  j)robably  l)e  converted  into  a surplus  in  the  course 
of  the  next  few  years. 

The  Works  Dej^artment  of  the  Ministry  of  Public 
Works  has  until  lately  been  mainly  concerned  with  the 
capital,  where,  since  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century,  enormous  improvements  have  been  made  by 
the  construction  of  roads,  l)ridges,  and  drains,  by  the 
reclaiming  of  land  for  open  sj^aces  in  the  city,  and  by 
the  erection  of  handsome  public  offices  and  buildings. 
The  public  works  of  the  interior  were  formerly  left 
entirely  to  the  management  of  local  officials,  for  which 
reason,  as  well  as  because  they  were  starved  for  funds, 
practically  no  serious  Avork  aaus  accomplished  there. 
Recently,  hoAvever,  the.  Ministry  has  appointed  District 
Engineers  to  the  charge  of  Public  Works’  branch  offices 
in  several  of  the  Monton,  a more  reasonable  amount  of 
money  has  been  alloAA^ed,  and  at  the  present  moment 
considerable  actiAuty  is  being  displayed  in  the  con- 
struction of  public  buildings,  substantial  houses  for 
officers,  and  in  the  ojAening  up  of  roads,  the  building 
of  bridges  and  other  nseful  Avorks  in  the  interior.  The 
European  element  in  the  DeiAartment  of  Works  is 
Italian. 

If  there  is  one  thing  more  striking  than  another 
amongst  the  changes  Aviought  during  the  last  feAv  years 
in  Siam,  it  is  the  great  improvement  in  the  j)ersonnel 
of  every  grade  of  almost  ewery  l)ei)artment  of  the  public 
services.  Fifteen  years  ago  tlie  GoA^ernment  had  to  be 
content  AAuth  a A^ery  poor  class  of  servant  and  the  old 
custom  still  prcAmiled  AAdiereby  the  Heads  of  Depart- 
ments regarded  ap])ointments  under  their  control  as  so 
much  munificent  provision  made  by  the  Government 
for  their  poor  relations,  rather  than  as  yiositions  from 
the  holders  of  Avhich  a certain  amount  of  Avork  should 
be  considered  due.  Thus  many  hopelessly  ignorant 
and  incompetent  persons  encumbered  the  Government 


KOAD-BKIDGE  IX  NORTHERN  SIAM, 


SWINGING  FOOT-BRIDGE  IN  CENTRAL  SIAM. 


GOVERNxMENT 


295 


offices,  and  as  all  siicli  clung  tiglitly  to  the  skirts  of 
their  patron,  the  periodical  migrations  of  Ministers  of 
State  from  one  Department  to  another  caused  a general 
post  amongst  the  lower  officials  which  threw  the  services 
into  grotesque  confusion  and  gave  rise  to  the  humorous 
stories  of  tide-waiters  converted  without  warning  into 
school-inspectors  and  other  changes  of  like  nature, 
wdiich  were  at  one  time  current.  It  cannot  he  said  that 
the  vice  of  nepotism  has  been  altogether  eradicated  even 
now,  but  it  has  been  reduced  wdtliin  bounds  and  few 
thoroughly  inefficient  persons  are  now  found  holding 
positions  of  any  importance  by  virtue  merely  of  their 
connection  with  high  officials.  In  the  selection  of  men 
for  appointments,  capacity  now  usually  counts  first 
with  favouritism  second,  and  a capable  officer  need 
not  expect  dismissal  from  a position  which  he  fills 
satisfactorily,  when  the  ]\finister  or  Director  to  whom 
he  is  subordinate  is  replaced  by  another  Chief. 

In  the  early  days  of  reform  many  Europeans  were 
engaged  as  Advisers  or  Teachers,  but  in  the  absence  of 
Siamese  officers  of  technical  training  or  experience  in 
administration  it  was  found  necessary  to  appoint  seA^eral 
of  these  foreigners  to  executive  positions  at  the  head  of 
Axarious  Departments.  AVithiu  the  last  few  years,  hoAV- 
ever,  the  Siamese  liaA^e  reached  a standard  of  capacity, 
and  of  the  other  cfualities  AAdiich  go  to  the  making  of  a 
reliable  Government  official,  AAdiich  appears  to  justify 
the  appointment  of  Siamese  officers  to  fill  many  of  these 
places  and  the  ])resent  tendency  is  markedly  towards 
the  gradual  elimination  of  Europeans  from  positions  of 
actual  control.  Thus,  though  foreign  Advisers  Avill 
probably  be  retained  to  assist  the  Avork  of  the.  dilTerent 
Ministries  for  some  years  to  come,  AAdiile  the  GoATrnment 
Avill  for  a long  time  be  unable  to  do  Avithout  foreign 
engineers,  schoolmasters,  forest  oflicers,  medical  officers, 
police  officers,  suiweyors,  and  otliers  on  the  estalilish- 
ments,  it  is  probable  that  tlie  foreign  official  as  Chief 


296 


SIAM 


of  a Government  Department  will  very  shortly  be  an 
anomaly  of  the  past.  This,  of  course,  is  as  it  should 
be.  A Government  that  is  under  the  necessity  of  en- 
gaging foreigners  to  administer  its  De]:)artments,  even 
temporarily,  is  in  a parlous  state,  but  a Government 
condemned  to  suffer  such  a state  of  affairs  indefinitely, 
is  lost.  The  salvation  of  Siam  as  an  autonomous  State 
demands  imperatively  that  she  should  learn  to  govern, 
and  should  govern,  herself,  and,  though  Siamese  officers 
may  not  in  every  case  be  able  at  first  adequatel}^  to  fill 
the  place  of  the  Europeans  who  have  done  the  pioneer 
work,  eveiq^  well-wisher  of  the  country  must  welcome 
the  spirit  which  is  calling  forth  men  willing  to  assume 
responsibility  and  hope  that  time  will  prove  them 
equal  to  the  tasks  they  are  undertaking. 


PART  IV 

INDUSTRIES  OF  SIAM 

Agriculture  and  Fishing  are  the  two  main  industries 
of  Siam.  Indeed  so  much  is  this  the  case  and  so  far  do 
these  absorb  the  attention  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country,  that  the  number  of  23eople  who  are  not  in  some 
way  concerned  with  either  of  them  and  who  are  engaged 
in  other  permanent  occupation  is  almost  infinitesimal. 
It  may,  in  fact,  safely  be  said  that,  outside  Bangkok, 
nearly  every  man,  except  he  be  a monk,  is  either  a 
cultivator  or  a fisherman,  while  even  in  the  capital  a 
large  pro])ortion  of  the  iidiabitants  derive  their  chief 
support  from  the  rents  of  fields,  orchards  or  fisheries. 
There  are  seasons,  however,  when  the  cultivator  cannot 


INDUS'nilES 


297 


farm  and  tlie  fislierman  cannot  fisli,  and  at  sncli  times 
varions  other  industries  are  fitfnll}"  engaged  im  The 
Siamese  is  not  in  the  least  addicted  to  work  for  work’s 
sake,  hnt  a man  mnst  have  something  to  occii})}-  him 
during  the  long  weeks  of  the  hot  weather  when  the 
fields  are  baked  to  the  hardness  of  rock  and  when  the 
inland  fisheries  are  dry,  as  also  when  the  rain  storms  of 
the  wet  seasons  are  stimulating  the  crops  and  preventing 
sea  fishing.  MoreoA^er,  advancing  civilisation  is  in- 
creasing the  AAoants  of  the  people,  while  the  regular 
payment  of  taxes  is  not  noAv  to  be  aAmided,  so  that  a 
little  extra  money  OA-er  and  above  the  earnings  of  the 
plough  or  the  nets  is  not  altogether  despised  in  these 
parts.  Hence  not  a few  persons  turn  their  hands  during 
a part  of  the  year  to  boat-building,  pottery,  brick- 
making, silk-growing,  paper-making,  AAXAod-craft  and 
other  minor  industries,  suspending  the  same  as  soon  as 
the  time  arnA-es  for  the  resumption  of  their  snbstantiAm 
occnpations.  Apart  f]'oni  the  foregoing  there  are,  Iioaa"- 
eA^er,  a feAv  industries  of  a more  or  less  professional 
nature  Avhich  demand  the  whole  time  of  their  Amtaries 
and  the  earnings  of  which  amount  to  more  than 
mere  adA^entitions  pocketmoney.  These  are  Rice-mill- 
i]ig.  Distilling,  Sugar  Iveilning,  Mining  and  Forestry, 
but  such  is  the  disposition  of  the  Siamese  that  these 
lucrative  trades  are  left  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
immigrant  Chinese  or,  in  the  case  of  the  last-named 
occupation,  of  ti-ibesmen  from  the  northern  mountains. 
The  Chinaman  indeed  not  only  monopolises  most  of 
tliese  industries  l)ut  ])lies  many  of  the  smaller  trades, 
to  the  exclusion  of  all  but  a feAv  of  the  iiatiA^es  of  the 
country.  Thus  the  shoemakers,  tailors,  carpenters, 
blacksmiths,  tinsmiths,  carriage-builders,  biackhuA^ers, 
even  market-gardeners  and  manual  labourers,  are 
usiiall}^  Chinese,  Avliile  a A^ery  large  proportion  of  the 
shopkeepers,  pawnbrokers  and  petty  traders  are  also  of 
that  nationality. 


298 


SIAM 


AGRICULTURE  AND  PLANTING 

Bice. — From  time  immemorial  the  plains,  valleys 
and  parts  of  the  hills  of  Siam  have  been  devoted  to  the 
cultivation  of  rice  and  the  present  inhabitants  of  the 
country  continue  to  plough,  sow  and  reap  there  after 
the  same  methods  and  with  the  same  kind  of  imple- 
ments, as  were  employed  by  their  predecessors  a 
thousand  years  ago.  To  say  that  rice  is  the  principal 
product  of  the  country  conveys  but  a feeble  and  in- 
adequate impression  of  the  supreme  position  of  this 
cereal  in  the  land.  It  might  in  fact  almost  be  said  that 
rice  is  Siam’s  only  product,  for  though  she  exports  timber, 
tin,  fish,  cattle,  i^epper  and  copra,  and  grows  tobacco, 
maize,  millet,  sugar,  cotton,  betel  and  a great  variety 
of  fruits,  yet  her  rice  production  preponderates  so 
entirely  and  her  commerce,  politics  and  social  con- 
ditions are  now,  and  have  always  been,  so  profoundly 
influenced  by  rice,  that  all  these  lesser  products  amount 
by  comparison  almost  to  nothing.  The  Englishman 
wliose  idea  of  a staple  food  is  formed  from  a knowledge 
of  the  part  played  by  bread  in  the  economy  of  his  owm 
country,  can  have  but  small  conception  of  the  import- 
ance of  rice  to  the  Siamese.  It  constitutes  not  merely 
the  princijDal  but  almost  the  sole  food  of  everyone  from 
the  highest  noble  to  the  lowliest  plebeian  ; horses,  cattle, 
dogs,  cats  and  all  other  domestic  animals  live  on  it  ; it 
is  used  for  making  beer  and  s])irits,  it  enters  largely 
into  all  ceremonial,  while  religious  and  superstitious 
observances  in  connection  with  its  cultivation  provide 
the  i^eople  with  their  most  frequent  occasions  for 
holidays  and  festivals.  The  onl}^  recognised  means  of 
investing  money  was,  until  the  recent  introduction  of 
banking  in  accordance  with  European  methods,  the 
purchase  of  rice  fields,  and  the  nobles  are  graded 
according  to  certain  (nowadays  purely  nominal)  grants 
of  rice-land  conferred  by  the  king  with  every  patent  of 


INDUSTRIES 


299 


nobility  ; dealings  in  rice  and  the  ownership  of  rice- 
fields  are  the  causes  of  most  of  the  civil  litigation  in  the 
law-courts,  and  the  result  of  the  last  or  the  prospects  of 
the  next  rice-harvest,  provide  the  most  absorbing  topics 
of  conversation  and  discussion  at  all  times.  It  is  rice 
which  forms  the  cargoes  of  the  thousands  of  boats  ever 
passing  up  and  down  the  river  Meiiani  Chao  Phaya  and 
the  freight  of  the  goods-trains  which  daily  reach 
Bangkok  from  the  interior  ; it  is  rice  which  supplies 
the  grist  of  the  numerous  mills  of  the  metropolis  and 
of  many  provincial  towns  (the  furnaces  of  which  mills 
are  fed  with  rice-husk)  ; it  is  rice  which  is  carried  away 
in  the  ocean-going  steamers  always  to  be  seen  loading 
in  the  Port  of  Bangkok  or  the  Koh  Si  Chang  roads  ; 
and  it  is  from  rice  that  the  Government  derives,  directly 
or  indirecth",  almost  the  whole  of  its  revenue.  In  the 
histoiy  of  the  country  also,  rice  has  loeen  an  important 
factor.  Many  of  the  ancient  invasions  which  swept  over 
the  land  were  caused  by  the  desire  of  one  ruler  to 
possess  the  rich  rice-lands  of  another,  while  the  demands 
of  agriculture  v^ere  frequenth"  the  cause  of  the  usually 
indecisive  nature  of  the  wars  in  which  old  Siam  so  often 
indulged.  Throughout  the  rainy  season  the  peasant  of 
ancient  Further  India  diligently  worked  to  obtain  his 
crop  of  rice  ; then,  with  the  coming  of  the  cold  weather, 
having  reaped  and  garnered  his  grain,  he  took  his  trusty 
sword  and  spear  and  Avent  on  the  raid  Avith  his  chief  in 
the  liA^ely  ho])e  of  loot,  of  unlimited  opinm  to  smoke 
and  of  the  smallest  modicum  of  danger  to  be  encountered. 
The  approach  of  the  next  ploughing  season  carried  his 
thoughts  irresistil)ly  liomeAvards  ; there  Avei’e  fields  to 
be  cleared,  ploughs  to  be  made,  and  spirits,  AAnthout 
AAdiose  goodAA'ill  no  crop  aaus  to  be  expected,  to  be  pro- 
pitiated ; and  moreover  aaui*  Avith  the  rain  falling  Avas 
hardly  amusing,  besides  being  dangerous  on  account  of 
the  damp.  And  it  thus  hap])ened  that  an  army  in  the 
field  usually  began  to  dAvindle  aAvay  Avith  the  coming  of 


300 


SIAM 


the  rains,  quite  regardless  of  the  war  in  which  it  was 
engaged. 

The  number  of  species  of  rice  cultivated  in  Siam  is 
usually  put  at  four,  though  some  of  the  numerous 
varieties  into  which  these  are  subdivided  are,  by  many 
authorities,  considered  as  distinct  species.  These 
varieties  are  upwards  of  one  hundred  in  number,  the 
chief  distinguishing  qualities  being  difference  of  colour, 
size,  or  flavour  of  the  grain,  the  absence,  or  varying 
length  of  the  awn,  and  what  not.  The  recognised 
species  are  kept  quite  separate  in  cultivation,  but  little 
care  is  taken  as  regards  the  varieties,  many  of  which  are 
often  found  growing  freely  intermingled  in  one  and  the 
same  small  fiehl  The  four  species  are  khao  san  the 
common  rice  of  low-er  Siam,  /c/mo  nio  glutinous  rice 
grown  throughout  the  country,  but  not  in  large 
quantities  exce})t  in  the  north,  where  it  takes  the  place 
of  common  rice  as  ordinaiq^  food,  khao  deng  literal^ 

‘ red  ’ rice,  which  when  boiled,  appears  other  than 
white,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  thin  membranous 
glumes  udiicli  adhere  to  the  grain  when  husked,  are  of 
a red,  yellow,  purple,  or  black  colour,  according  to  the 
variety  of  the  sj)ecies.  The  above  three  species  are  all 
quasi-water  plants  : the  fourth  is  the  khao  rai  kong  or 
hill  rice  grown  l)}^  the  dumllei'S  among  the  mountains 
including  Lao,  Lawa,  Karien,  and  Kaclie. 

Who  shall  say  wlien  the  cultivation  of  rice  first  began 
in  Siam  ? Tradition  and  record,  so  far  Ixack  as  they  go, 
show  it  already  in  a flourishing  condition  there.  It 
may  have  been  introduced  from  China,  where  rice  was 
certainly  very  much  cultivated  5000  years  ago,  or  from 
India  wliere  it  is  almost  as  old,  but  it  is  more  likely  that 
its  use  dates  back  even  beyond  5000  years  for,  as  wheat 
is  found  among  the  relics  of  pre-liistoric  man  in  Europe, 
so,  it  may  safel,y  l)e  asserted,  did  rice  form  a part  of  the 
belongings  of  his  Asiatic  contemporary.  It  is  j)robable 
indeed  that  the  inhabitants  of  Siam  in  the  Neolithic 


INDUSTRIES 


301 


age,  traces  of  whose  existence  ahoniid  in  the  form  of  the 
polished  celts  peculiar  to  that  period,  already  knew  the 
uses  of  rice  and  planted  a semi- wild,  undeveloped  form 
of  it  in  the  mountain  valleys  and  upland  marshes,  which 
were  all  that  then  appeared  aliove  the  sea  of  what  is  now 
Siam.  Rice  has  been  found  growing  wild,  apparently 
indigenous  in  China  and  in  India,  and  may  therefore 
be  fairly  concluded  to  have  been  indigenous  in  Indo- 
China  also,  seeing  that  this  country  lies  between  the 
other  two,  and  is  now  peculiarly  the  home  of  the  rice 
plant,  and  to  have  crept  I33'  slow  degrees  into  cultivation 
simnltaneonsl}^  in  all  three  places.  However  this  may 
be,  it  is  certain  that  at  the  comparative!}"  recent  date  of 
the  first  appearance  of  the  Lao-Tai  ancestors  of  the 
Siamese  on  the  upper  reaches  of  the  Menam  Chao 
Phaya,  the  cultivation  of  rice  had  already  been  known 
to  them  for  centuries,  while  the  more  civilised  Khmer 
with  whom  they  came  in  contact  hact  brought  great  areas 
of  the  vast  plains  of  the  lower  Mehkong  and  '\Ienam 
valleys  into  a state  of  cultivation  which  would  compare 
favourably  with  that  which  obtains  there  to-day,  a 
condition  x>i’omoted  doubtless  by  the  close  connection 
Avhicli  at  that  time  existed  between  Kambodia  and  the 
rice-growing  countries  of  tlie  East. 

The  wealth  and  greatness  of  the  pre-Siamese  Khmer 
kingdoms  were  built  ujion  rice,  even  as  the  wealth  and 
prosperity  of  modern  Siam  rest  solely  upon  it.  At  the 
time  when  the  former  were  at  their  zenith,  the  area 
under  cultivation  in  the  iMenam  valley  must  have  been 
very  great,  but  with  the  irru])tions  of  the  Lao-Tai  tribes 
and  the  disorganisation  which  thereuxion  ensued,  much 
of  the  land  went  out  of  cultivation  and  it  was  not  until 
the  founding  of  Ayuthia  brought  comparatively  peaceful 
times,  that  the  resinnjition  of  rice  cultivation  once  more 
brought  to  the  country  riches  and  consef|uent  develop- 
ment of  civilisation.  Even  at  the  present  da}',  however, 
the  Siamese  have  not  reclaimed  more  than  a part  of  the 


302 


SIAM 


lands  wliicli  provided  the  Khmer  with  the  means  to 
build  their  beantifnl  cities  and  temples,  and  to  carry 
on  their  extensive  trade  with  China  and  India.  Great 
treeless  plains,  overgrown  now  with  reeds  and  grass, 
surround  the  site  of  many  a long  vanished  Khmer  town, 
and  across  these  can  with  some  difficulty  be  traced  the 
course  of  ancient  irrigation  canals,  all  vestige  of 
tradition  concerning  which  has  been  so  completely 
lost  that  the  peasantry  who,  with  the  recent  more  rapid 
development  of  rice-growing  are  beginning  to  work 
these  plains,  ignoring  the  significance  of  the  slight 
depressions  now  visible  in  the  contour  of  the  land, 
believe  themselves  to  be  on  virgin  soil  which  has  never 
before  been  ploughed  excej)t  by  sea-waves. 

It  would  occupy  too  .mnch  space  to  describe  separately 
each  of  the  numerous  varieties  of  the  local  species  of 
rice,  but  one  or  two  are  worthy  of  note  if  only  as 
showing  the  wonderful  adaptability  of  nature  to  cir- 
cumstances. As  a rule  the  young  rice-plants  growing 
in  a nursery  must  be  transplanted  as  soon  as  they  reach 
a certain  height,  that  is,  before  they  become  so  large  as 
to  choke  each  other,  and  in  seasons  of  drought  the 
entire  sowing  is  liable  to  be  lost  by  reason  of  the 
inability  of  the  farmer  to  prepare  his  sun-baked  land  in 
time,  after  the  first  showers  have  tempted  him  to  sow 
his  nurseiy.  A variety  of  common  rice  kliao  san  is, 
however,  to  be  found  which,  upon  reaching  a certain 
size  ill  the  niirser)^,  stops  growing  though  remaining 
perfectly  healthy,  until  the  heavy  rain  has  come  to 
soften  the  earth,  when  it  can  be  transplanted  and 
resumes  its  growth  apparently  quite  unalfectecl.  It  can 
be  imagined  how  popular  is  this  variety  of  rice  in 
disti'icts  liable  to  an  irregular  rainfall,  where,  but  for 
its  peculiar  qualities,  the  farmers  would  frequentK 
secure  little  or  no  return  for  their  labour.  Again,  in 
many  parts  of  the  country,  the  land  on  which  rice  is 
grown  is  liable  to  floods  of  greatly  varying  severity. 


THE  GREAT  CEXTRAL  REAIXS  EROAI  THE  WEST,  SHOWIXG  THE  RICE  FIELDS  OF  SIAM. 


RICE-LANDS  IN  FLOOD-TIME. 


INDUSTRIES 


303 


Here  the  ordinary  rice-plant  would  frequently  be 
destroyed  and  a variety  is  therefore  used  which  has 
been  evolved  in  the  course  of  centuries  of  selection. 
The  variety  grows  at  first  as  ordinary  rice,  but  when 
the  floods  come  its  growth  is  accelerated  to  keep  pace 
with  the  rise  of  water.  The  straw,  large  and  light,  acts 
as  a float  and  keeps  the  head  of  the  plant  above  water, 
and  as  the  flood  slowly  subsides,  lies  on  the  surface 
throwing  out  at  the  nodes,  lateral  shoots  that  terminate 
in  ears,  and  fibrous  rootlets  which  draw  from  the  water 
the  additional  nourishment  demanded  by  the  luxuriously 
growing  plant,  which  the  original  roots  in  the  soil  can- 
not supply.  Thus  a crop  is  secured,  however  severe  the 
floods  may  be,  though  the  resultant  grain,  owing  doubt- 
less to  the  rank  growth  of  the  plant,  is  small  and  inferior 
in  quality  to  that  produced  on  irrigable  and  drainable 
land.  It  is  said  that  these  two  varieties  which  to  some 
extent  compensate  for  the  absence  of  artificial  irrigation, 
are  also  found  in  the  marshy  plains  of  lower  Bengal 
but  in  no  other  rice-growing  countries. 

The  Siamese,  in  common  with  other  Oriental  rice 
growers,  apply  an  extensive  nomenclature  to  their 
staple  product.  The  generic  term  is  Miao  ; the 
seedlings  when  they  first  apx>ear  above  ground  are 
kra  and  when  full  grown  have  become  ton  khao  ; the 
grain  fresh  winnowed  is  khao  plcuak,  the  paddy  of 
commerce,  and  Avhen  husked  is  khao  Idang  or  khao  san 
according  to  the  thoroughness  of  the  operation  ; the 
husk  is  klap  and  fermented  rice  is  khao  nak.  The 
early  and  late  crops  are  distinguished  as  khao  hao  and 
khao  nak  that  is,  light  and  heavy  rice,  and  connoisseurs 
can  determine  at  sight  to  which  of  these  classes  a 
sample  of  grain  belongs.  A still  further  distinction  is 
made  according  to  the  process  l)y  which  the  rice  lias 
been  cultivated,  that  transplanted  during  growth  being 
known  as  khao  na  suan  or  garden  rice,  and  that  not  so 
treated  as  khao  na  muaiuj  or  provincial  rice. 


304 


SIAM 


Cultivation  of  rice  is  conducted  in  Siam  in  three 
different  ways,  by  planting  in  small  fields  on  which  a 
moderate  and  even  supply  of  water  can  be  maintained 
thronghont  the  season,  by  sowing  broadcast  in  larger 
fields  subject  to  irregular  supplies  of  water  and  some- 
times to  heavy  floods,  and  by  sowing  or  dibbling  in 
rough,  mountain-side  clearings.  The  first  method, 
called  na  dam — from  na  a rice-field  and  dam  to  dive 
(illustrative  of  the  action  of  plunging  the  seedlings 
into  the  soft  mud) — which  is  practised  with  slight 
variations  throughout  the  rice-growing  world,  is  by 
far  the  most  productive  and  prevails  wherever  it  is 
possible  sufficiently  to  control  the  water  supply.  The 
second,  na  wan,  from  n-an  meaning  to  sow,  common  to 
parts  of  Burma  and  Cochin  China,  demands  less  labour 
than  na  dam  but  produces  less  grain  and  that  of  an 
inferior  quality  ; it  is  a primitive  method  nearly  related 
to  the  third  or  jungle-clearing,  dibbling  process 
called  na  pa  (pci  meaning  jungle),  which  last  is 
without  doubt  the  most  ancient  form  of  rice  cultiva- 
tion, and  is  practised  by  the  wild  tribes  of  Siam  as 
well  as  by  those  of  Burma,  China,  India,  Tonquin  and 
elsewhere. 

The  fields  devoted  to  the  ?? a da???  process  are  surrounded 
each  by  its  own  small  dam  a foot  or  so  high,  and  thus 
form  a series  of  shallow  pans.  All  through  the  dry 
season  these  lands  are  an  arid  waste  of  baked,  cracked, 
heat-stricken  clay,  but  with  the  first  showers  heralding 
the  rains,  the  soil  becomes  soft,  the  cracks  fill  in  and 
grass  immediat  ly  springs  up.  Then  the  husbandman 
prepares,  in  a corner  of  one  field,  the  nursery  where 
shall  be  raised  seedlings  sufficient  to  plant  up  the  whole 
of  his  land.  The  soil  of  the  nursery  is  churned  into  a 
mixture  of  wet  mud  and  manure,  on  the  well-smoothed 
surface  of  Avhich  the  seed  is  thickly  sown.  Germination 
takes  place  almost  at  once  and  in  a few  days  the  nursery 
is  a thick,  brilliant  green  mat  of  young  rice-plants  for 


SIAMESE  PLANTING  OUT  YOUNG  RICE- 
SEEDLINGS  IN  IRRIGATED  EIELD. 


I 


1 


INDUSTRIES 


305 


the  reception  of  which  the  farmer  and  his  family  now 
prepare  the  rest  of  the  land.  The  embankments  are 
examined  and  made  water-tight  and  as  soon  as  the  soil 
is  sufficiently  moist,  it  is  ploughed.  Enough  water  is 
then  admitted,  or  opportunely  falls  as  rain,  to  cover  the 
field  entirely  to  a depth  of  some  inches  and  a rake 
harrow  is  then  introduced  by  which  means  the  weeds 
and  grass  uprooted  by  the  plough  are  removed  and  the 
soil  churned  into  a thick,  porridge-like  mass.  As  each 
small  field  is  brought  to  this  condition  it  is  planted  up, 
the  seedlings  which  have  now  grown  to  about  eighteen 
inches  long  being  treated  by  a process  called  taivn  hra 
demanding  no  little  skill  on  the  part  of  the  husbandman. 
Some  hundreds  of  the  plants  are  firmly  grasped  al^out 
the  middle  with  both  hands  and  gently  dravm  from  the 
mud,  the  l^undle  is  then  svuing  in  the  air  and  brought 
down  heavily  against  the  raised  foot  of  the  o]3erator, 
the  mud  adhering  to  the  interlaced  roots  being  thus 
shaken  off,  then  dumped  upon  a little  platform,  or 
on  a single-legged  stool  stuck  into  the  mud,  where  it  is 
shaken  into  shape  and  tied  about  with  a wisp  of 
grass,  and  finally  svmng  down  again  to  the  ground 
a compact,  symmetrical  packet  {mat  hra)  with  scarcely 
an  injured  seedling  in  it.  Anon  the  bundles  are  carried 
to  the  field  where  planting  is  going  on  and  are  there 
dej)osited  at  intervals.  Those  engaged  in  planting 
untie  them  as  they  are  required,  and,  separating  the 
seedlings  Q)eng  hra)  into  wis]5s  of  four  or  five  together 
{haiD  hra)  plunge  these,  with  a single  movement  of 
the  hand,  or  with  the  aid  of  a stick,  deep  into  the  mud 
where  they  are  thereafter  left  to  grow. 

With  the  completion  of  planting,  active  opera- 
tions in  the  field  are  for  a time  suspended,  all 
that  is  now  necessary  being  an  occasional  inspection 
of  the  dams,  the  preparation  of  granaries  made  of 
bamboo  matting,  coated  inside  with  mud  and  covered 
u 


306 


SIAM 


with  thatch,  and,  when  the  crop  begins  to  ripen,  the 
scaring  of  birds. 

For  the  na  wan  process  the  land  is  ploughed  as  for 
na  dam,  but  is  harrowed  without  being  flooded.  No 
nursery  is  used  but  the  grain  is  sown  broadcast  as  soon 
as  the  weeds  and  grass  have  been  removed,  the  opera- 
tion being  thereupon  completed. 

The  na  pa  method  entails  the  maximum  of  labour 
and  yields  the  minimum  of  profit.  Some  time  before 
the  rains  begin,  a patch  of  jungle  is  selected  and  the 
trees  on  it  cut  down  and  left  to  dry.  After  a short 
interval  the  dried  timber,  bushes  and  grass  are  burnt 
and  the  land  thus  cleared  of  everything  except  stumps. 
If  the  jungle  is  thin  and  the  roots  in  the  soil  not 
numerous,  a plough  is  then  brought  into  requisition 
but  in  most  cases  this  is  not  possible  and  the  ground 
has  to  be  broken  up  by  hoeing.  When  this  has  been 
accomplished,  the  seed  is  sown  broadcast  or  in  holes 
made  with  a stick,  half  a dozen  grains  to  the  hole.  An 
additional  labour  is  entailed  by  the  rapid  growth  of 
weeds  which  have  to  be  removed  several  times  while  the 
crop  is  young.  A clearing  is  used  for  two  seasons  only, 
as  the  soil  is  found  to  become  so  soon  exhausted  as  to 
render  a third  soAving  almost  fruitless  ; among  the 
mountains  the  clearings  are  almost  invariably  upon  the 
slopes,  some  tribes  carefully  selecting  the  steepest 
possible  acclivities,  the  gradient  being,  through  long 
habit,  a matter  of  indifference  to  them  AAdiile  AAulking. 
Also,  on  account  of  the  AA^ood  ashes  available  as  manure, 
dense  tree  jungle  is  considered  the  best  land  and  is  there- 
fore chosen  rather  than  more  open  country,  although  the 
clearing  of  it  is  often  a matter  of  great  difficulty. 

In  the  outlying  districts,  AAdiere  jungle  surrounds  or 
is  contiguous  to,  the  fields,  the  damage  done  by  birds 
is  often  very  considerable.  Green  parrots  are  sometimes 
a scourge  in  these  parts,  great  flocks  of  many  thousands 


INDUSTRIES 


307 


of  birds  flashing  back  and  forth  over  the  yellow  fields 
and  settling  among  the  golden  ears,  with  beantifnl  but 
disastrous  effect.  They  are  not,  however,  allowed  to 
rob  unmolested,  for  the  clay  pellet  from  the  bow  of  the 
watcher  seated  on  a slightly  raised  platform  among  the 
crop,  speedily  finds  them  out  or,  if  ‘ browning  ’ with 
this  small  missile  fails  to  scare  them,  a large  ball  of 
baked  earth,  lannched  from  the  whippy  end  of  a long 
bamboo,  soon  sends  the  whole  flock  sweeping  away  with 
discordant  cries  to  the  next  clearing,  and  so  on  until  it 
arrives  at  a field,  the  watcher  of  which  is  asleep,  where 
it  settles  nndistnrbed  and  in  a few  minntes  of  eating 
and  scrambling  makes  a large  hole  for  somebody  in 
the  season’s  profits. 

The  reaping  season  brings  everybody  into  the  fields 
again,  wielding  sickles  and  reaping-knives  the  shape  of 
which  varies  in  different  parts.  The  crop  is  cut,  leaidiig 
a long  stnbble,  then  bound  into  small  sheaves  and  is 
stacked  on  the  winnowing  ground,  a circular  spot, 
either  in  the  fields  or  near  the  village,  bared  of  all 
growth  and  beaten  down  hard  and  level.  The  sheaves 
are  often  brought  to  the  winnowing  ground  on  light 
bamboo  sledges  drawn  by  the  plough  cattle,  vdiich 
latter  are  also  noAv  required  for  the  threshing.  This 
last  is  effected  by  driving  the  animals  yoked  together, 
round  a j)Ost  to  which  the  innermost  is  fastened,  and 
spreading  the  sheaves  out  beneath  their  feet  to  be  trodden 
upon  until  the  grain  is  all  detached  from  the  straw. 

Winnowing  is  performed  by  the  simple  process  of 
j)onring  the  grain  on  to  the  ground  from  a raised 
X)latform,  the  empty  hnsks  and  the  chaff  being  blown 
away  in  the  descent.  When  the  wind  is  high  the  raised 
platform  can  l)e  dispensed  vdth.  The  methods  of  reaping 
and  winnowing  are  the  same  all  over  the  country,  except 
in  those  districts  where  the  floods  are  heaviest  and 
where  reaping  has  sometimes  to  be  done  from  boats. 


308 


SIAM 


The  grain  is  now  piled  up  in  shining  yellow  heaps 
on  the  winnowing  ground  and  in  this  condition  it  is, 
in  the  southern  districts,  bought  by  the  dealers  for  the 
rice-mills.  In  the  North  it  is  carried  away  and  stored 
in  the  granaries  until  the  harvest  and  the  subsequent 
period  of  idleness  and  merrymaking  is  quite  over,  when 
the  great  rice-boats  carry  it  also  to  the  mills.  Enough 
grain  is  in  all  cases  retained  for  food  during  the  coming 
year  and  for  next  season’s  seed,  upon  the  selection  of 
which  latter  little  or  no  particular  care  is  bestowed. 

According  to  an  ancient  custom  which  exists  through- 
out Further  India  and  in  fact  in  all  countries  where 
uncertainty  of  climate  makes  it  imperative  to  take 
advantage  of  all  favourable  weather,  agricultural 
operations  in  Siam  were,  and  still  are  in  the  outlying 
districts,  performed  communally,  that  is,  by  numbers  of 
the  villagers  working  in  concert  in  the  fields  of  their 
neighbours  in  succession,  and  these  labours  in  common, 
usually  confined  to  transplanting  and  reaping,  are  made 
the  occasion  of  much  friendly  intercourse  and  are  looked 
forward  to  with  pleasure.  Thus,  upon  an  evening,  a 
farmer  will  visit  his  friends,  and,  informing  them  that 
his  hra  is  well  grown  and  his  fields  ready,  will  formally 
ask  them  to  assist  at  the  planting.  The  family  soothsayer 
has  been  consulted,  and  has  j)ronounced  the  day  to  be  a 
lucky  one  ; the  Pu  Yai  Ban,  or  village  Headman,  has 
been  informed  ami  has  given  his  consent,  plenty  of  good 
white  rice  and  a special  brand  of  dried  fish  have  been 
prepared,  in  fact,  no  expense  has  been  spared  that  the 
planting  may  ])e  fittingly  accomplished.  The  neigh- 
bours, whose  fields  perhaps  receive  their  water  later 
and  therefore  are  not  ready,  willingly  agree  to  take 
part  and  the  next  morning  sees  the  whole  party,  the 
size  of  which  varies  with  the  area  to  be  planted,  out  in 
the  fields  in  their  l)lack  working  clothes  and  large  white 
suii-hats.  The  men  are  set  to  pulling  up,  tying  and 


INDUSTRIES 


309 


carrying  the  Kra,  and  the  women,  lined  ont  in  the 
fields,  receive  the  bundles,  open  them  and  plunge  the 
young  plants  in  the  mud.  Thus  the  work  goes  on  all 
day,  enlivened  by  a flow  of  badinage  and  laughter,  the 
not  over  delicate  jokes  of  the  young  men  evoking  prompt 
repartee  of  equal  humour  and  breadth  from  the  girls, 
who  fire  off  their  wit  without  looking  up  from  the 
inelegant  stooping  attitude  entailed  by  their  occupation. 
Unfortunate  is  the  youth  who  shall  now  deliver  to  the 
maidens  untidy  or  mud-clotted  bundles.  Upon  him 
descends  a deluge  of  feminine  sarcasm,  withering  him 
in  the  sight  of  his  delighted  companions.  Indeed,  the 
clums}"  rice  cultivator  is  an  object  of  general  derision 
and,  whereas  the  young  man  who  is  handy  with  plough 
and  sickle  stands  well  with  the  elders  and  is  admired 
by  all,  the  bungler  at  this,  the  most  important  duty  of 
manhood,  goes  through  life  with  the  heaviest  of  handi- 
caps. It  is  the  same  with  the  other  sex  ; the  girl  who 
can  plant  her  rai  of  land  a day,  has  no  lack  of  suitors 
and,  if  comeliness  is  added  to  her  other  charms,  is 
always  much  in  request  for  working  parties  as  a draw 
for  the  young  men.  True,  her  attractiveness  may  not 
be  evident  to  alien  eyes  as  she  stoops  and  waddles 
bare-legged  in  the  water  in  her  tight-fitting  long  black 
coat,  diminutive  panung  and  large  white  hat,  all  freely 
bespattered  with  mud,  but  to  the  youths  of  her  ovm 
condition  who  watch  her  there,  she  embodies  all  the 
female  charm  tliey  have  been  taught  to  recognise,  while 
her  industry  and  deftness  indicate  the  comfortalile  home, 
the  well-cooked  rice  and  the  general  hap])iness  in  store 
for  the  fortunate  man  wlio  shall  get  her. 

Ill  the  evening  the  workers,  washed  clean  from  the 
mud  of  the  fields  and  dressed  in  dry  clothes,  partake 
of  the  superior  rice  and  fish  of  their  host,  on  which 
they  do  not  fail  to  compliment  him,  then,  after  a smoke, 
more  chaff  and  perlia]is  a round  or  two  of  semi-improvised 


310 


SIAM 


verses  touching  on  the  incidents  of  the  day,  the  party 
breaks  up,  to  meet  again  and  go  through  the  same 
routine  next  day.  Reaping  and  winnowing  by  con- 
certed action  are  conducted  in  the  same  way,  when,  the 
weather  being  fine,  the  ground  reasonably  dry  and  the 
sexes  indiscriminately  mingled,  there  is  even  more  room 
for  jollity  than  the  planting  season  affords. 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  capital  the  small  peasant 
proprietor  tends  to  disappear,  giving  place  to  the  great 
land-owner  of  the  royal  family  or  the  nobility,  and  for 
this  reason  (as  well  as  because  the  farmers  round 
Bangkok  are  becoming  more  and  more  impressed  with 
the  advantages  of  getting  the  utmost  produce  out  of 
their  land),  the  old  custom  of  communal  labour  is 
falling  into  disuse,  the  work  being  done  by  large 
numbers  of  Lao  coolies  who  come  down  from  the  hills 
every  year  and  hire  themselves  out  for  the  season. 

The  rice-growing  implements  in  use  at  the  present 
day,  differ  little,  if  at  all,  from  those  emploj^ed  b37-  the 
remote  ancestors  of  the  actual  occupiers  of  the  land. 
They  consist  of  a heavy  knife  with  handle  at  right 
angles  like  an  English  hay-cutting  knife,  for  clearing 
long  grass  off  the  land  ; the  plough,  tai,  made  of  two 
pieces  of  wood  generally  cut  by  the  farmer  himself  in 
the  nearest  jungle,  joined  together  with  cane  and  having 
the  point  shod  with  a small  iron  share  expressively 
called  hoa  vni  or  ‘Pig’s  Head’;  the  harrow  krat,  an 
exaggerated  hay  rake  drawn  by  cattle,  upon  the  back 
of  which  the  driver  stands  that  his  weight  may  keep 
the  six  or  eight  l)road  wooden  teeth  deep  in  the  soil ; 
a planting  stick,  sometimes  used  where  the  water  in 
the  fields  is  too  deep  for  planting  to  be  comfortably 
done  with  the  hand,  merely  a light  rod  with  a forked 
end  to  hold  the  plants  ; the  hoe,  cliauy,  the  same  as 
used  elseAvhere  ; the  sledge  consisting  of  a light,  neatly 
made  platform  mounted  on  runners,  all  of  bamboo,  used 


H.R.H.  PRIXCK  DAMROXG  IX  A LIGHT  BULLOCK  CARRIAGE. 


■ 'C 

i..' 


, -•  A 

':i 

f ■ 


"i.  •' 


1 


i 


INDUSTRIES 


311 


only  in  those  parts  of  the  lower  plain  where,  at  reaping 
time,  the  water  is  still  ont  or  the  soil  too  soft  for  the 
wheels  of  a cart.  The  knife  used  for  reaping  varies  great- 
ly in  shape  in  different  localities  ; the  Siamese  and  Lao 
use  a sickle  called  kio,  not  unlike  the  European  article 
but  varying  in  size  and  shape  in  each  district,  while  in 
the  southern  peninsular  provinces  there  are  two  forms, 
one  a flat  knife  set  at  right  angles  to  the  end  of  a long 
stick  called  penud  in  East  Coast  Malay,  and  the  other 
a thin  blade  set  in  the  convex  edge  of  a flat  board 
pierced  by  a bamboo  stick.  The  latter  is  called  kek 
in  Siamese  and  pengetam,  (from  Ketmn,  a crab)  in  Malay 
and  is  used  almost  exclusively  by  women,  who  are  often 
wonderfully  expert  with  it  and  get  through  an  astonish- 
ing amount  of  reaping,  although  it  cuts  no  more  than 
a single  straw  at  a time. 

The  Siamese  cart  deserves  special  notice.  The  bullock- 
cart,  the  commonest  form  of  it  in  most  parts  of  the 
country,  is  a well-balanced,  trim  machine  with  a large 
curved  tilt  of  bamboo  matting  brought  well  over  in 
front  and  behind.  Two  poles,  set  together  in  the  form 
of  a V,  support  at  their  apex  the  yoke  and  near  their 
base  the  body  of  the  cart  and  the  axletree  is  also  attached 
to  them.  The  wheels  have  rims,  spokes  and  axles  of 
hard  red  wood  and  the  axletree  protrudes  beyond  the 
axles  and  fits  into  outriggers  attached  to  the  cart  fore 
and  aft  the  wheels,  distributing  the  weight  in  such 
manner  as  to  enable  the  structure  to  withstand  the 
unlimited  bumping  and  thumping  to  which  it  is 
subjected  whether  travelling  across  country  or  along 
the  rough  roads.  This  outrigger  arrangment  is  ]:>robably 
of  Kambodian  origin,  being  found  all  through  that 
country  and  Siam,  though  apjmrently  unknown  in  the 
Shan  States  or  Burma.  The  light  carts  used  as  private 
conveyances  are  often  beautifully  built,  those  of  the 
Chantaburi  province  in  particular,  being  highly  finished 


312 


SIAM 


with,  polished  lacquer  work.  The  great  kwien,  or 
wagon,  of  the  lower  plains  is  a remarkable  machine. 
The  form  is  roughly  that  of  the  ordinary  bullock-cart 
but  the  V-shaped  poles  form  a smaller  angle,  the  body 
is  long,  deep  and  very  narrow  and  the  tilt  is  not  usually 
brought  over  in  front  or  behind.  The  wheels  are  about 
seven  feet  in  diameter,  the  top  of  the  tilt  is  often  as 
much  as  ten  feet  from  the  ground  and  the  outriggers 
are  enormous,  wide-spreading  affairs  two  or  more  feet 
from  the  body  of  the  cart  and  turned  up  at  the  ends  into 
fantastic  points.  Buffalos  are  used  to  draw  it  and  a 
kwien  rolling  sedately  over  the  open  fields  with  its  body 
swaying  and  the  great  horns  of  its  cattle  waving,  is  an 
impressive  object.  With  all  its  appearance  of  size 
however,  its  cariying  capacity  scarcely  exceeds  that  of 
the  more  modest  bullock-cart,  since  the  deep,  soft  soil 
which  prevails  Avhere  it  is  used,  forbids  anything  but  a 
light  load.  The  Siamese  cart  has  usually  been  built,  all 
but  the  wheels,  by  the  driver  himself  and  contains  no 
part  which  cannot  soon  be  replaced  in  case  of  accident, 
from  the  nearest  patch  of  jungle.  The  rim  of  the  wheel 
has  no  tire,  but  is  made  in  sections  dovetailed  into  each 
other  and  tightened  up  with  wedges.  Cane  lappings 
do  duty  for  nails  throughout  the  structure,  which  is 
thereby  made  very  strong,  Init  apt  to  give  forth  the  most 
fearful  groans  at  every  movement.  The  wheels  also, 
with  their  wooden  axles  working  on  Avooden  axletrees, 
produce  piercing  shrieks  AAdiich  at  times  reach  far 
beyond  mere  noise.  The  carter  loves  this  music,  Avhich 
frightens  olf  Avild  lAeasts  and  ‘ spooks  ’ along  the  lonely 
jungle  roads,  announces  his  approach  to  his  far  distant 
friends,  and  enables  him  to  recognise  his  oaaui  cart 
among  a thousand.  A powerful  screech  enhances  the 
value  of  a cart  and  tricks  are  knoAvn  by  Avhich  the  tones 
can  be  arranged  to  suit  different  tastes.  The  traveller’s 
tale  of  the  villagers  Avho  tune  their  cart  AAdieels  before 


KWIl'^X  OK  BUFFx\LO  CART.  CENTRAL  SIAM.  Photo : Antonio, 


PLOUGH  BUFFALO.  CENTRAL  SIAM. 


INDUSTRIES 


313 


starting  on  a journey  as  a violinist  tunes  his  instrument 
is,  however,  to  he  discredited. 

The  draught-cattle  of  the  country  are  the  ijonderous 
water-buffalo  in  the  lower  plains  and  among  the  high 
mountains,  and  small,  lightly-built,  skittishly  inclined 
bullocks  everywhere  else.  For  ploughing  a single 
buffalo  or  a pair  of  bullocks  is  used. 

Attempts  have  more  than  once  been  made  to  introduce 
modern  implements  and  machinery  for  the  cultivation 
of  rice,  and  scientific  farming  companies  have  been 
started  in  different  localities  but,  owing  to  imperfect 
management  and  other  causes,  these  have  not  succeeded, 
and  melancholy  iron  ploughs  and  threshing  machines 
rusting  in  deserted  farmyards  are  all  that  noAv  remains 
of  them,  the  lands  they  were  intended  to  exploit  having 
long  since  reverted  to  the  conservative  native  and  his 
ancient  tools.  At  the  present  moment,  however,  the 
government  is  offering  grants  to  assist  private  enterprise 
in  the  search  for  a power-driven  plough  which  shall 
work  satisfactorily  on  hard  unmoistened  soil  and  thus 
enable  the  cultivator  to  get  his  land  ploughed  earlier 
than  is  now  the  case.  Experiments  with  steam  and 
petrol  motor  ploughs  have  been  tried  but  have  hitherto 
failed  on  account  of  the  high  cost  involved,  but  several 
engineering  firms  are  still  pursuing  the  matter  and 
hope  to  find  a solution  of  the  problem  before  long. 

Coconuts. — The  coconut-palm  was  at  one  time  largely 
grown  round  Bangkok  and  inland  in  Central  Siam  but 
within  the  last  tAventy-five  years  or  so  the  ravages  of  the 
dread  coconut-beetle  have  been  so  terrible  that  the 
tree  has  almost  entirely  disappeared  from  that  part  of 
the  country.  Coconuts  are  noAv  imported  into  Bangkok 
in  large  numbers,  the  coconut-palm  tax  has  been 
removed  from  the  reA^enue  schedules  and  Central  Siam 
has  apparently  accepted  as  final  the  defeat  inflicted  upon 
it  by  the  beetle.  Yet  a reasonable  amount  of  care  and 


314 


SIAM 


forethought  is  all  that  was  ever  required  to  check  the 
virulence  of  the  insect  pest  and  even  now  there  is  no 
reason  why,  with  proper  precautions,  the  coconut-palm 
should  not  thrive  as  Avell  in  Central  Siam  as  it  does 
further  south.  In  Southern  Siam,  for  reasons  which  are 
not  precisely  known,  but  which  would  appear  to  be 
connected  with  the  prevalence  of  salt  sea  winds,  the 
coconut-palm  grows  magnificently,  is  very  little  affected 
by  beetles,  and  its  cultivation  is  rapidly  extending.  The 
tree  prefers  a light  sandy  soil  and  in  many  places  on 
the  east  coast  is  grown  right  on  the  seashore  with  its 
roots  washed  by  the  breakers.  The  nuts  are  planted, 
after  being  coaxed  into  sprouting  in  a damp,  shady 
spot,  about  twenty-five  feet  apart,  in  regular  rows,  and 
be,yond  an  occasional  clearing  of  the  ground  and  a 
periodical  search  for  beetles,  require  little  subsequent 
attention.  On  good  soil  fruit  may  be  expected  when 
the  trees  are  six  years  old  but  the  average  age  of  first 
bearing  is  from  seven  to  eight  years.  The  growing  of 
coconuts  is  perhaps  the  easiest  form  of  agriculture  in 
the  world.  As  soon  as  the  trees  are  high  enough  the 
owner  builds  a house  amongst  them,  and  thereafter  has 
little  to  do  l^eyond  occasionally  shooting  the  squirrels 
which  damage  the  fruit  considerably  at  times,  and  at 
inteiwals  picking  those  of  the  nuts  which  have  begun 
to  turn  ])rown.  This  latter  ox^eration  is  often  performed 
by  monkeys  trained  for  the  x^''-ii1^ose,  a good  strong 
animal  whose  education  has  been  well  attended  to,  com- 
manding a high  price.  The  grower  counts  upon  obtain- 
ing from  fifty  to  a hundred  nuts  a year  from  each  tree, 
and  on  a x^i'ice  of  l)etween  5s.  and  6s.  6d.  per  hundred, 
or  in  other  words  something  like  £16  10s.  gross  profit 
per  acre,  so  that  coconut  cultivation  in  Siam  is  an 
extremely  profital:)le,  as  well  as  a j^leasant,  occupation. 
It  is  probably  one  which  will  attract  European  planters 
now  that  the  country  has  been  thrown  ox:»en  to  per- 


INDUSTRIES 


315 


manent  settlement  by  foreigners.  Tire  Island  of  Koli 
Sainni  off  the  east  coast  of  Southern  Siam,  is  supjiosed 
to  produce  the  finest  coconuts  in  the  Avorld  and  those 
of  many  places  on  the  mainland  close  by  are  very  little, 
if  at  all,  inferior. 

Rubber. — In  Siam  the  planting  of  rubber  is  an  entirely 
new  industry.  Though  situated  close  to  the  Malay 
States  under  British  protection,  the  centre  of  the  world’s 
rubber  planting  industry,  and  though  in  daily  com- 
munication with  Singapore  where  the  prospects  of  rubber 
cultivation  have  formed  the  chief  topic  of  conversation 
since  1906,  the  Siamese  have  only  in  the  latter  part  of 
1909,  begun  to  realise  the  true  significance  of  the  matter 
and  the  importance  which  it  may  have  for  their  country. 
A certain  quantity  of  wild  rubber  of  inferior  quality, 
collected  l^y  hillmen  in  the  forests  of  Northern  Siam 
and  bought  up  by  traders,  has  been  exported  from 
Bangkok  for  many  years  past  and  more  than  one  species 
of  rubber-producing  tree  has  been  known  and  tapped  in 
Southern  Siam.  But  in  both  cases  tlie  source  of  supply 
is  a variety  of  the  Ficus  family,  of  very  slow  growth,  and 
it  was  for  some  reason  taken  for  granted  that  no  part  of 
Siam  was  suitable  for  the  cultivation  of  the  Para, 
Castilloa  and  other  rubber  trees  adapted  for  plantation 
purposes.  It  has  lately  been  demonstrated  by  experi- 
ment that  in  the  most  southerly  districts  of  Southern 
Siam  there  is  a very  large  area  of  available  land  on 
which  the  best  kinds  of  plantation  rul:»ber  thrive  as  well 
as  in  the  neighbouring  British  Malay  States.  At  present 
there  exists  in  this  tract  one  well-establislied  Para 
rubber  plantation  where  about  1100  rai,  or  450  acres 
have  been  planted  and  where  a force  of  some  150 
labourers  is  employed,  and  several  applications  for  large 
areas  of  land,  required  for  this  purpose,  are  now  before 
the  Government. 

Pepper. — The  cultivation  of  pepper  is  one  of  the  most 


316 


SIAM 


ancient  industries  of  tire  country.  As  far  back  as  history 
goes  it  has  been  an  article  of  export,  and  has  formed 
part  of  the  complimentary  gifts  sent  to  foreign  countries 
by  embassies  from  the  Court  of  Siam.  In  the  seventeenth 
century  the  monopoly  of  the  pepper  trade  was  one  of  the 
chief  bones  of  contention  between  the  foreign  merchants 
in  Siam,  and  it  was  largely  by  giving  this  to  the  French 
that  Faulkon,  shortly  before  his  downfall,  hoped  to 
strengthen  their  position  in  the  country.  At  that  time 
the  output  was  probably  more  than  three  thousand  tons 
a year  but  at  the  present  day  it  is  much  less,  the  market, 
during  the  last  fevf  years  especially,  having  been  so 
uncertain  as  to  damage  the  industry  considerably. 
Pepper  growing  is  confined  to  the  littoral  provinces  of 
Southern  Siam,  and  is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
Chinese  settlers.  Its  cultivation  demands  a good  deal 
of  care  and  is  an  expensive  branch  of  agriculture.  The 
vines,  which  are  groAvn  on  poles  set  a few  feet  apart,  have 
to  be  carefully  tended  and  watered  and  the  intervening 
ground  requires  constant  weeding.  The  plant  yields 
fruit  at  the  age  of  about  three  years  and  when  in  good 
condition  is  very  prolific.  The  leaves  are  large  and 
glossy  and  of  a dark  green  colour.  The  flowers  are 
borne  on  a raceme  on  which  the  berries  afterwards 
cluster  thickly.  As  these  enlarge  they  are  thinned  out, 
and  the  unripe  fruit  then  removed,  being  dried  in  the 
sliell,  forms  the  black  pepper  of  commerce.  The  berries 
which  remain  turn  a yellowy  green  when  ripe  and  after 
being  dried,  with  the  outer  shell  removed,  are  termed 
wiiite  pe])per,  the  A^alue  of  which  is  nearly  double 
til  at  of  black. 

Tobacco  is  grown  in  several  districts  though  not 
much  in  the  central  plains.  In  some  localities  it  is 
cultivated  in  the  rice-fields  during  the  dry  weather  but 
the  best  crops  are  raised  in  the  light,  rich,  alluvial  soil 
on  the  banks  and  islands  of  the  upper  reaches  of  the 


INDUSTRIES 


317 


Menam  Chao  Phaya  and  its  tributaries.  In  Northern 
Siam  tobacco  is  the  principal  agricultural  product  after 
rice.  The  output  of  the  whole  country  is  not  however 
equal  to  the  amount  consumed  and  a considerable 
quantity  is  imported  from  China.  The  methods  of 
cultivation  are  rough.  The  seed  is  sown  in  beds  and 
the  seedlings  are  afterwards  planted  out  in  ground 
which  has  been  well  ploughed  and  hoed.  Little  weed- 
ing is  done  as  the  plants  grow  up  and  no  precautions 
are  taken  to  Avard  off  the  attacks  of  insects,  A\Nerefore 
much  of  the  crop  is  often  lost,  AAdiile  that  whicli  reaches 
maturity  frequently  consists  of  malformed  and  stunted 
plants.  The  loAvest  leaves  are  stripped  off  the  plant  as 
soon  as  they  attain  full  size,  the  plant  continuing  to 
grow,  and  this  operation  is  continued  until  the  leaves 
produced  are  too  small  to  be  AA^orth  collecting  Avhen  the 
mutilated  stem  is  left  to  floAAm-  and  produce  seed  as  best 
it  can.  When  still  green  the  leaves  are  cut  up  into 
coarse  shreds  and  the  tobacco  thus  made  is  exposed  to 
the  sun  on  mats  or  racks  until  dried.  At  present  the 
best  Siamese  tobacco  is  rough  and  strong,  and  efforts  to 
introduce  it  to  the  notice  of  Europeans  in  the  form  of 
pipe-tobacco  and  cigarettes  have  met  AAuth  indifferent 
success.  It  is  probable,  hoAvever,  that  Avith  other 
methods  of  cultiA^ation  and  Avith  greater  care  bestoAA^ed 
upon  the  cutting,  drying  and  curing  processes,  a tobacco 
equal  to  that  produced  in  Burma,  India,  JaA^a  or  Borneo 
could  be  obtained.  At  present  the  AAdiole  cro}3  is  con- 
sumed locally  in  the  form  of  cigarettes  Avrapped  in  lotus 
floAA'er  petals,  or  in  the  spathe  of  Indian  corn. 

Sugar. — Once  upon  a time  Siam  Avas  a great  sugar- 
groAving  country.  In  the  first  half  of  the  I9th  century 
this  AAus  her  principal  article  of  export  to  Europe,  and 
Sir  John  BoAAuing  Avhen  he  visited  Bangkok  in  1855, 
predicted  that  sugar  AAmild  soon  become  the  chief 
agricultural  product  of  the  country.  His  conjectures 


318 


SIAM 


did  not  however  become  facts  for,  in  common  with  other 
cane-sugar  centres,  Siam  has  been  hopelessly  defeated 
by  beet.  Sugar-cane  is  now  grown  only  in  small 
patches  and  that  for  purely  local  consumption  in  the 
raw  state  or  for  the  making  of  coarse  molasses,  and  the 
only  remains  of  the  once  flourishing  cane-sugar  industry 
are  the  melancholy  ruins  of  a number  of  sugar  mills  on 
the  banks  of  the  Menam  Noi  and  Nakhon  Chaisi  rivers, 
one  of  which  for  many  years  figured  in  an  edifying 
lawsuit  between  the  Royal  Survey  Department,  who  had 
used  the  half-ruined  chimney  thereof  as  a trigno- 
metrical  point,  and  the  owner,  who  demanded  an 
exorbitant  rent  therefore  on  pain  of  removal  of  his 
property. 

A good  deal  of  coarse  jaggery  sugar  is  however 
extracted  from  the  juice  of  Palmyra  and  coconut  palms, 
the  industry  being  chiefly  noticeable  on  account  of  the 
peculiar  method  adopted  for  taxing  it.  Small 
earthenware  pots  of  a peculiar  shape  and  uniform  size 
are  made  to  the  order  of  the  Government  and  the  makers 
of  this  unrefined  sugar  are  compelled  by  law  to  use 
these,  and  no  other  pots  as  moulds  into  which  to  run 
their  sugar  when  made,  flflie  price  of  the  pots  includes 
the  cost  of  their  manufacture  and  also  the  revenue  on 
the  sugar,  and  severe  penalties  are  imposed  on  those  who 
expose  any  sugar  for  sale  otherwise  than  in  the  Govern- 
ment pots,  or  who  attempt  to  manufacture  pots  of  the 
prescribed  shape. 

Betelnut. — The  Areca  or  ‘ Betelnut  ’ palm  is  grown 
in  every  joart  of  the  country,  biit  in  few  districts  is  the 
production  sufficient  to  meet  the  enormous  demand 
which  the  chewing  proclivities  of  the  Siamese  create. 
In  some  parts  of  Southern  Siam,  however,  the  supply 
exceeds  the  demand,  and  a certain  quantity  of  betelnut 
is  exported  thence  to  other  parts  of  the  Kingdom  and  to 
Singapore  and  Penang.  In  the  sul)urbs  of  Bangkok  the 


CRUSHING  SUGAR  CANE, 


y 


1 


I 


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INDUSTRIES 


319 


betelnut  palm  is  grown  in  gardens  where  the  trees  are 
planted  in  orderly  rows  inter-planted  with  such  other 
frnit-trees  as  are  fonnd  to  thrive  in  the  thin  shade 
which  they  cast.  In  the  provinces  the  trees  are  grovm 
in  rough  plantations,  round  about  the  houses  of  the 
peasantry,  and  on  any  patch  of  available  waste  land. 
With  its  smooth  straight  stem,  graceful  topknot  of 
leaves  and  hanging  bunches  of  fruit  sometimes  full 
fifty  feet  from  the  ground,  the  betel  is  one  of  the  most 
graceful  of  all  the  palm  family.  Once  planted  in  a 
moist  situation  it  requires  al^solutely  no  care,  and  though 
it  is  possible  that  by  selection  and  manuring  the  fruit 
might  be  improved,  the  Siamese  cultivator  has  never 
thought  it  worth  while  to  take  any  trouble  about  it. 
The  betelnut  is  used  fresh,  dried  or  pickled.  When 
fresh  the  edible  or  rather  chewable  kernel  is  yellow 
and  soft,  when  dry  it  is  brown  and  extremely  hard  and 
has  to  be  cut  up  or  pounded  before  it  can  be  used,  and 
when  pickled  it  is  soft  and  brown  and  rotten-looking. 
The  trees  yield  fruit  at  the  end  of  their  third  year  and 
bear  usually  once,  but  in  some  places  twice  a year, 
from  a hundred  to  five  hundred  nuts.  There  appears 
to  be  a ready  and  constant  demand  for  betelnut  both  in 
India  and  China,  and  it  is  probable  that  plantations  of 
these  palms  in  Southern  Siam  would  be  found  highly 
profitable.  Hitherto,  however,  European  planters  have 
not  taken  any  interest  in  this  product  of  agriculture. 

Cotton. — This  has  been  cultivated  in  Siam  from  time 
immemorial,  all  tradition  as  to  when  and  by  whom  it 
was  introduced  having  long  been  lost.  It  seems 
probable,  however,  that  the  i>lant  was  first  brought  to 
the  country  from  India,  where  it  is  known  to  have  been 
in  use  at  least  2500  years  ago,  and  whence  it  ])rol:>ably 
accompanied  the  early  Telingana  settlers  to  Pegu  and 
Kambodia.  Several  A^arieties  of  the  species  Gossypium 
Tlerlaceum  are  used,  and  it  is  belieA^ed  that  Gossypium 


320 


SIAM 


Hirsutum  is  also  found  in  Siam,  though  this  species 
seems  to  he  otherwise  confined  to  the  American  continent. 
Cultivation  is  carried  on  chiefly  in  the  north,  hut  has  of 
late  years  declined  very  much  owing  to  increasing 
facilities  for  obtaining  foreign  cotton  goods  everywhere. 
The  quality  is  good,  however,  though  rough,  and  given 
sufficient  incentive  to  development,  the  plant  could  he 
grown  with  success  in  all  parts  of  the  country  except 
perhaps  in  Southern  Siam,  and  there  is  no  reason  why 
cotton  should  not  some  day  become  an  article  of  export. 
Experiments  made  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1906-07,  with  seed  collected  from  distant  parts  of  the 
country,  gave  good  results,  though  the  staple  was  found 
to  he  rather  short.  The  plant,  which  is  treated  as  an 
annual  in  most  countries,  is  here  often  allowed  to  remain 
in  the  ground  for  two  or  even  three  years,  bearing  crops 
of  diminishing  value  twice  each  year,  and  growing  into 
a straggling,  woody  shrub  from  six  to  eight  feet  high. 
This  treatment  is  prompted  by  the  indifference  of  the 
cultivator,  indifference  which  however  brings  its  own 
punishment,  for  the  roots  of  the  cotton,  after  three  years 
growth,  are  plunged  very  deep  in  the  earth  and  can 
only  be  removed  by  extensive  digging  operations.  The 
cotton  produced  in  Siam  is  nearly  all  dressed,  spun  and 
woven  into  cloth  locally,  but  a small  quantity  of  the  raw 
article  is  exported  overland  into  China  and  Burma.  A 
tree-cotton,  the  fibre  of  which  is  known  in  commerce  by 
the  name  of  Ka/pok,  is  grown  to  some  extent,  but 
can  hardly  be  said  to  be  cultivated,  though  as  it 
commands  a good  and  steady  price  and  flourishes  in 
the  damp  climate  of  Southern  Siam,  it  may  attract  the 
attention  of  planters  in  the  future. 

Hesainum  is  grown  sometimes  in  the  rice-fields  before 
the  rice  season  and  sometimes  on  high  land.  It  is  easy 
of  cultivation  and  finds  a ready  sale  but  is  not  much 
grown  on  the  lower  plains.  It  is  valued  for  the  oil 


A DURIAX  AIAKKET.  Photo Antonio. 


I 


i 


INDUSTRIES 


321 


contained  in  the  seed,  which  is  extracted  hy  means  of 
rough  wooden  presses  worked  hy  hand  or  by  bnllock 
power.  The  oil  is  used  for  cooking,  more  especially  in 
those  parts  of  the  conntiy  where  coconut  oil  is  not 
easily  obtainable.  The  residue,  after  the  oil  has  been 
extracted,  is  used  for  feeding  cattle  and  as  a manure. 
A certain  amount  of  impressed  seed  (about  4000  tons) 
is  annnally  exported  from  the  country. 

The  remaining  vegetable  products  of  Siam  may  be 
classed  rather  as  horticultural  than  as  agricultural 
produce.  Beans,  Onions,  Maize  and  Millet  are  grown 
to  a certain  extent  in  fields  but  more  often  in  small 
garden  patches.  A few  hundred  tons  of  beans  and 
onions  are  annually  available  for  export,  maize  and 
millet  are  grown  for  home  consumption  only ; the  betel 
vine  {'plu),  called  in  Mala^-a  ‘Sirih’  and  in  India  ‘Pan,’ 
the  leaf  of  which  is  chewed  with  the  lietel-nut,  is  largely 
grown  in  gardens,  more  especially  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Bangkok,  where  the  consumption  of  it  is  so  great  that 
one  large  market  is  devoted  entirely  to  its  sale.  The 
vine  recpiires  much  care,  yields  leaves  fit  for  use  when 
about  a year  old  and  continues  to  do  so  for  him  years, 
at  the  end  of  which  time  the  foliage  becomes  small  and 
of  too  strong  a flavour  to  be  of  value.  Chrdamoms  are 
grown  in  and  exported  from,  the  Chantaljuri  district 
and  nutmegs  are  cultivated  in  Southern  Siam.  Yams 
and  gourds  of  many  kinds  are  grown  in  garden  patches 
and  chillies  and  egg-plants  or  ‘ lirinjals  ’ are  to  be  found 
in  most  villages.  Tapioca  is  a common  article  of  garden 
produce  in  the  south  and  Indigo  is  groivn  in  small 
quantities  in  various  parts.  The  fruits  of  Siam  are  veiy 
numerous  in  kind  and  abundant  in  c[uantity.  They 
include  Durians  and  i\Iangosteens,  Mangos  and  Pine- 
apples, Oranges  and  Pummelos  of  many  kinds,  Custard- 
Apples  and  Bullock-hearts,  Grenadillas  and  Soursops, 
Jack-fruit,  Litchis,  Tamarinds  and  Guavas,  ]\raprang  or 
X 


.322 


SIAM 


Marion,  Ngaii  or  Rambntan,  Laiigsat,  Kratorn,  and 
many  others.  The  orchards  round  Bangkok  are  well 
kept  and  highly  profitable  and  more  care  seems  to  be 
given  to  fruit-growing  in  Siam  generally  than  is  the 
ease  in  other  tropical  countries. 


Irrigation  Works 

The  question  of  irrigation  is  one  with  which  the  future 
of  Siam  is  altogether  bound  up.  Although  the  export 
of  rice  has  increased  considerably  of  late  years,  there 
are  abundant  signs  that  a time  is  approaching  when, 
unless  serious  steps  are  taken  considerably  to  enlarge 
the  annual  output,  this  one  great  asset  of  the  country 
will  no  longer  enable  it  to  meet  the  liabilities  which 
progress  creates  on  a continually  increasing  scale. 
Some  twelve  years  ago,  with  from  five  to  six  hundred 
thousand  tons  of  rice  annually  available  for  export, 
Siam  had  a regular  yearly  surplus  of  revenue  which 
enabled  her  to  lay  up  a considerable  reserve  of  capital. 
Now  with  a rice  export  of  some  seven  to  eight  hundred 
thousand  tons,  she  has  to  meet  a frequently  recurring 
deficit  which  has  eaten  largely  into  her  reserves  and 
which,  if  allowed  to  continue,  must  in  the  immediate 
future  seriously  check  the  administrative  and  general 
progress  which  has  been  so  marked  during  late  years 
and  by  the  continuance  of  which  alone  she  can  continue 
to  exist.  The  liabilities  which  she  has  recently  incurred 
in  borrowing  money  from  abroad  and  the  efforts  which 
she  is  bound  to  make  and,  indeed,  is  now  making,  to 
re-adjust  her  foreign  treaties  and  thus  to  rid  herself  of 
the  incubus  of  extra-territoriality,  entirely  forbid  all 
thought  of  retrogression  or  of  any  relaxation  of  her  efforts 
at  reform,  and  to  secure  the  funds  which  are  absolutely 


INDUSTRIES 


323 


essential  to  coiitiiined  progress,  immediate  and  rapid 
development  of  lier  resources,  that  is  of  her  rice-pro- 
duction, is  a matter  of  imperative  necessity.  At  the 
present  moment  rather  more  than  eight  and  a half 
million  rai,  or  about  three  and  a half  million  acres,  are 
estimated  to  be  under  rice  cultivation  in  the  whole 
country,  which  area  produces  the  entire  food  supply  of 
the  inhabitants  and  also  the  rice  available  for  export. 
Meanwhile  a good  deal  more  than  twice  that  area  of 
excellent  arable  land  remains  unoccupied  and  fallow. 
Although  the  rice  planted  in  the  plains  cannot  live 
without  the  presence  of  an  abundant  supply  of  water, 
more  especially  during  the  first  months  of  its  growth, 
and  although  the  rainfall  is  insufficient  fully  to  meet 
this  demand  about  twice  in  every  five  seasons,  yet  no 
true  irrigation  works  are  to  be  found  anywhere  except 
in  some  of  the  valleys  in  the  north  where  the  water 
from  the  streams  is  occasionally  diA^erted  from  its  course 
and  distributed  oA^er  small  areas.  True,  the  iietAA^ork 
of  creeks  and  channels  elseAvhere  referred  to  as  existing 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  great  central  plain,  liaA^e 
giA^en  access  to  lands  formerly  uninhabitable  for  AA^ant 
of  communication  and,  by  admitting  the  AAuter  of  the 
rivers  on  to  the  said  lands  during  flood  time,  liaA^e 
rendered  the  cultiAution  of  rice  possible  on  a con- 
siderable part  of  them,  but  these,  though  excellent 
wateiways,  are  not  irrigation  Avorks,  since  they  neither 
bring  the  AAUter  to  the  land  at  such  an  elevation  as  to 
alloAv  of  its  distribution  oA^er  the  fields  at  any  time 
when  recpiired,  nor  do  they,  in  any  but  the  most 
inadequate  AAuy,  enable  the  flood-AAuters,  AAdiich  they 
introduce  (sometimes  AAuth  disastrous  effect),  to  return 
to  the  riA’-ers  from  AAdiich  they  have  come.  They  are, 
in  fact,  mere  inundation  canals  and  though,  in  a year 
of  sufficient  rainfall  and  of  average  flood,  they  are  of 
assistance  to  the  crops,  they  are  of  small  use  in  averting 


324 


SIAM 


loss  ill  tlie  bad  years  when  rainfall  and  flood  are 
deficient  or  excessive.  The  most  recently  constructed 
of  these  canals,  the  Ivlang  Rang  Sit  system,  opened  in 
1896,  brought  under  cultivation  about  three  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand  acres  of  first  rate  rice-land  and 
incidentally  made  the  fortunes  of  the  concessionaries, 
one  of  whom,  a Eurojiean,  whose  career  opened  behind 
the  counter  of  a Bangkok  chemist’s  shop,  is  now  a large 
landed  proprietor  in  his  own  country. 

Many  rude  implements  have  been  devised  for  raising 
water  from  the  canals  on  to  the  fields,  implements  which, 
when  Avater  is  only  slightly  deficient,  enable  the  culti- 
vator to  supplement  the  suppl}^  and  to  tide  over  short 
spells  of  drought,  but  Avhich,  in  the  event  of  serious 
failure,  are  poAA^erless  to  arrest  total  loss  of  crop.  Of 
these  the  commonest  is  a long-handled  basket-shaped 
shovel  of  bamboo  Avicker-AA^ork,  suspended  from  the 
apex  of  a tripod  and  just  touching  the  surface  of  the 
Avater  brought  in  a small  channel  to  the  dammed  edge 
of  the  field  to  be  irrigated.  The  operator  pushes  the 
shoA^el  baclvAAvards  and  foiward  through  the  arc  of  a 
circle,  and  at  each  ]aus1i  shoA^els  up  about  a gallon  of 
AA^ater  and  discharges  it  OA^er  the  little  dam  and  on  to  his 
land.  Sometimes  the  sIioaM,  instead  of  hanging  from  a 
tri])od,  is  sus])ended  by  ropes  l^etAA'een  two  men  standing 
on  either  side  of  the  channel  and  is  sAAuing  baclvAA^ards 
and  foiwards  hy  them,  at  each  SAving  picking  up  and 
discharging  a shoA^elful  of  AAuter.  In  years  AAdien  the 
rainfall  is  insufficient  the  efforts  of  the  peasantry  to  save 
their  crops  by  means  of  these  al)surdly  inadequate 
instruments,  Avitli  the  hot  sun  scorching  the  rice-plants 
and  pitilessly  drying  up  the  tiny  rivulet  made  with  so 
much  exertion,  are  at  once  ridiculous  and  pathetic.  A 
rather  more  satisfactory  implement  is  a kind  of  tread- 
mill AA'here  tAA^o  men,  AAulking  on  pedals  fixed  to  the  axle 
bar,  reA^oh^e  a AAdieel  on  AAdiich  runs  an  endless  band 


INDUSTRIES 


325 


fiiiTiislied  with  paddles  or  scoops  which,  passing  through 
an  inclined  trough,  one  end  of  which  is  in  the  water ' 
while  the  other  protrudes  on  to  the  field  to  he  irrigated, 
rise  and  pour  out  a small  hut  constant  stream  of  water. 
AttemjDts  wHch  have  heen  made  to  introduce  windmill 
pumps  have  failed,  the  tropical  winds  l)eing  found  too 
capricious  for  the  maintenance  of  any  regular  supply  of 
water  on  the  fields. 

It  is  many  years  since  the  Government  first  began  to 
he  aware  that  the  time  Avas  approaching  when  cultiAm- 
tion  according  to  the  primitiAm  methods  of  the  ancients 
could  no  longer  suffice  foi*  the  needs  of  the  State  and 
AAdien  the  great  question  of  irrigation  AA^ould  liaAm  to  he 
seriously  considered.  The  matter  aaus  much  debated 
and  the  ahoAm  mentioned  Klong  Rang  Sit  concession,  an 
outcome  of  early  deliberations,  aatts  at  first  helieA-ed  to  he 
a solution  of  the  difficulty.  It  AA^as  thought  that  the 
system  AA^ould  sup]Aly  all  requirements  and  that  it  might 
in  time  he  extended  to  coA^er  the  greater  part  of  the 
plains  of  Central  Siam.  A feAV  3^ears’  experience  Iioaa^- 
CA'er,  made  it  apparent  that  tlie  difficulty  aaus  not  thus 
easily  to  he  surmounted.  The  lands  thereby  brought 
under  cultiAmtion,  though  more  ]Arolific  than  most  other 
parts,  AA^ere  found  to  he  by  no  means  rendered  immune 
by  Aurtue  of  the  lock-gates  confining  the  AA^aters  of  the 
neAv  canals,  to  the  Aucissitudes  caused  liy  excessiA^e  or 
deficient  rainfall,  AAdiile  it  aatts  noticeable  that  by  the 
rapid  silting  up  of  tlie  new  canals,  lands  opened  up  by 
the  system  soon  became  once  more  cut  off  and  inacces- 
sible. It  AA^as  found  indeed  that  the  best  of  inundation 
canals  did  not  much  improA^e  matters,  and  it  became 
increasingly  evident  that  by  true  irrigation  alone  conld 
the  desired  deA^elopment  be  attained.  After  this  failure 
of  practical  experiment  the  question  once  more  became 
academic,  and  continued  to  be  discussed  spasmodically 
for  some  years,  during  AAdiich  matters  AA^ent  from  bad  to 


326 


SIAM 


worse,  the  existing  canals  being  entirely  neglected  and 
* allowed  to  silt  up  to  such  an  extent  as  largely  to  discount 
the  annual  increase  in  the  rice  production  of  the  country 
which  should  have  resulted  from  a rapidly  improving 
revenue  and  police  administration.  At  length  the 
goA^ernment  took  the  decisive  step  of  procuring  the 
assistance  of  a European  irrigation  expert  to  report 
on  the  situation  and  to  advise  as  to  the  best  means  for 
improving  the  same.  The  results  Avere  firstly  the 
reA^elation  of  a state  of  affairs  entirely  unsatisfactory 
from  the  hydrostatist’s  point  of  vieAv  and  secondly  a 
recommendation  couched  in  the  most  earnest  language, 
urging  the  immediate  introduction  of  a sound  system 
of  true  irrigation.  In  a masterly  rej)ort  the  foreign 
expert  put  foiward  a feasible  scheme,  based  upon 
lengthy  obseiwation  of  the  conditions  actually  present, 
touching  the  soil,  the  geography  and  the  available 
AA^ater  supply  of  the  country.  It  Avas  sIioaaui  that  the 
great  central  plain  Avas  admirably  adapted  for  irrigation, 
that  the  Avater  supply  Avas  plentiful  and  that  time, 
money  and  expert  superintendence  Avere  alone  AA^anting 
to  create  a great  irrigation  system  AAdiich  AA^ould  not 
only  render  the  lands  iioav  under  cultiA^ation  independent 
of  flood  and  rainfall  and  therefore  of  greatl}^  enhanced 
productiA^eness,  Init  AA^ould  increase  the  actual  area  of 
land  aAmilable  for  rice  cultivation  to  almost  double  its 
present  area.  The  cost  of  the  scheme,  AAdiich  included 
the  repair  and  utilisation  of  all  the  existing  canals,  Avas 
placed  at  about  three  millions  sterling,  to  be  spread 
OA^er  from  five  to  seA^en  years,  and  it  aaus  pointed  out 
that  Avitli  this  system  in  full  AA^orking  order,  the  total 
annual  reA^enues  of  the  country  derived  from  land  AA^ould 
be  enormously  increased.  Much  further  consideration 
folloAA^ed  the  submission  of  this  report,  the  upshot  of 
AAdiich  AAUS  that  a Department  of  Irrigation  aaus  in- 
augurated in  the  year  1904  and  entrusted  Avith  the 


INDUSTRIES 


327 


labour  of  making  the  preliminary  investigations  neces- 
sary for  the  realisation  of  the  proposed  scheme  and  in 
the  meanwhile  of  repairing  all  the  old  canals,  rendering 
them  fit  for  service  once  more  as  communications  and 
suitable  for  subsequent  embodiment  in  the  main 
system.  A lack  of  funds  has  in  some  degree  hampered 
the  operations  of  the  new  Department  but  the  pre- 
liminary work  has  been  steadily  pushed  forward,  with 
the  result  that  many  of  the  old  canals  have  been 
furnished  with  locks  and  deepened  by  steam  dredging, 
while  extensive  surveys  and  hydrostatic  measurements 
have  given  results  which  justify  the  beginning  of  actual 
construction  of  the  great  irrigation  system  in  the 
immediate  future,  or,  in  the  event  of  sufficient  money 
not  being  forthcoming  for  this,  the  adoption  of  one 
or  other  of  several  minor  schemes  affecting  portions 
only  of  the  irrigable  area,  which  have  been  prepared 
by  the  Department. 


Fisheries  and  Fishing 

As  every  meal  which  a Siamese  eats,  from  the  time  of 
his  weaning  till  death  puts  an  end  to  his  earthly  career, 
consists  principally  of  rice,  so  almost  every  mouthful  of 
rice  is  made  palatable  and  helped  down  by  fish  in  some 
form  or  other.  Fresh,  salt,  dried,  pickled  and  decayed, 
are  some  of  the  forms  in  which,  roasted,  fried,  boiled  or 
raw,  almost  ever}^  creature  of  the  water  is  daily  assimi- 
lated by  high  and  low,  rich  and  poor.  The  Buddhist 
teachings  deprecate  the  destruction  of  any  form  of 
animal  life  and  the  Siamese  cosmology  provides  a 
special  place  of  future  punishment  for  the  breakers  of 
this  law,  with  a department  reserved  for  the  peculiar 
treatment  of  those  who  destroy  or  who  sanction  the 


328 


SIAM 


destruction  of  fish.  But  since  man  must  live,  and  a 
continual  diet  of  plain  boiled  rice,  even  if  eked  out 
with  other  vegetable  matter,  is  neither  nourishing  nor 
interesting,  popular  opinion  has  long  since  sanctioned 
an  evasion  of  the  law  and,  under  the  specious  pretence 
that  the  taking  of  fish  from  the  water  and  their  sub- 
sequent loss  of  life  are  not  strictly  cause  and  effect,  a 
considerable  percentage  of  the  population  make  a living 
by  catching  fish  and  the  whole  nation  eats  it  and  hopes 
for  the  best.  Not  the  least  important  of  recent  ad- 
ministrative reforms  of  Siam  has  been  the  passing  of 
a very  complete  and  comprehensive  Fisheries  Act 
regulating  the  methods  by  which,  the  times  when,  and 
the  places  at  which,  fishing  may  be  carried  on,  and 
incidentally  fixing  the  revenues  payable  by  fishermen 
of  every  degree.  Prior  to  the  passing  of  this  law  the 
fisheries  constituted  a State  monopoly  and  were  farmed 
out  to  wealthy  Chinese,  whose  methods  of  subletting 
their  rights  and  collecting  their  rents  and  duties  left 
very  much  to  be  desired  and  were  the  causes  of  frequent 
nomplaints  of  injustice  as  well  as  of  occasional  dis- 
turbances of  the  peace.  The  new  Act  has  proved  of 
great  benefit  to  the  pid3lic  and  under  its  wise  provisions 
all  l^ranches  of  the  industry  are  extending. 

Sea-fishing  is  carried  on  all  round  the  coast  of  the 
gulf  but  assumes  its  greatest  importance  in  the  shallow 
waters  near  the  northern  shores.  The  Fisheries  Act 
contains  an  interminable  list  of  nets  and  traps  for  the 
Tising  of  which  licenses  of  different  values  are  necessary. 
The  most  productive  of  all  traps  is  the  Foil  Lemii, 
constructed  in  water  about  twelve  feet  deep  and  con- 
sisting of  two  long  converging  lines  of  stakes,  the  narrow 
opening  at  one  end  of  which  leads  into  a ring  of  stakes 
and  baml^oo  screens  enclosing  an  acre  or  more  of  water. 
Shoals  of  fish,  more  especially  the  yla  tu,  a small 
species  of  pilchard,  are  guided  by  the  avenues  of  stakes 


INDUSTRIES 


329 


into  the  confined  space  where  the  fish  assemble,  some- 
times in  enormous  numbers,  and  whence,  all  egress 
having  been  stopped  by  nets,  they  are  removed  by  the 
fishermen  at  regular  intervals.  These,  however,  are  l^y 
no  means  the  only  fishing-stakes  to  be  seen  in  the  waters 
of  the  gulf.  Outside  the  wide  mouths  of  the  rivers, 
converging  lines  of  poles  are  planted,  each  pair  of  lines 
ending  in  a couple  of  stout  posts  to  which,  when  the 
tide  is  on  the  turn,  a bag-net,  sometimes  exceeding  a 
hundred  feet  in  length,  is  attached,  and  into  this  fish  of 
all  kinds  and  also  innumerable  ]irawns,  crabs,  cuttle-fish 
and  other  queer  creatures  are  carried  by  the  fast  flowing 
waters.  In  other  places  the  shallow  sea  is  planted 
thick  with  thin  poles,  apparently  at  random,  which, 
shortly  after  immersion,  become  encrusted  from  the 
bottom  to  the  surface  of  the  water  with  a large  kind  of 
mussel,  imry  much  prized  as  food.  In  other  places, 
again,  long  sticks  passed  through  the  centre  of  a small, 
flat  circular  net  with  a cane  rim,  are  planted  out  in  rows, 
the  nets  resting  on  the  sea  liottom  and  having  a piece 
of  bait  in  each.  These  contrivances  are  taken  up  ei^ery 
evening  and  usually  eacli  one  brings  to  the  surface  one 
or  more  large  cralis  which  are  sold  alive  in  the  markets. 

Poll  Lemu  fishing  is  always  something  of  a gamlile. 
The  construction  of  the  traps  and  drying  apparatus  are 
costly  operations  and  a large  staff  of  fishermen  must  be 
engaged  and  partly  paid  in  advance  at  the  beginning 
of  the  year.  If  the  season  is  a good  one,  all  is  well ; 
the  traps  are  filled  with  fish  every  day,  the  drying  sheds 
are  never  empty  and  tlie  fortunate  speculator  sees  junk 
after  junk  sailing  away  China-bound  with  cargoes  of 
his  providing.  Sometimes,  however,  the  i^la  tu,  for 
reasons  unknown  to  man,  is  present  only  in  small  slioals 
or  fails  altogether  to  put  in  an  appearance,  in  which 
cases  the  end  of  the  season  finds  the  lessees  of  the 
fishing  onlj^  just  able  to  cover  their  outlay  or  altogether 


330 


SIAM 


‘ broke.’  The  very  precariousness  of  the  industry,  how- 
ever, has  charms  for  the  hazard-loving  Chinese  who 
usually  finance  it,  and  with  the  opening  of  each  new 
season  there  is  no  lack  of  investors  ready  to  try  their 
luck. 

Further  down  the  gulf  the  use  of  fishing  stakes  is 
restricted  by  the  depth  of  the  water  to  the  estuaries  of 
the  rivers,  and  here  seining  becomes  the  most  important 
branch  of  the  industry.  From  every  river  mouth  along 
the  coast  there  issues  at  break  of  day,  all  through  the 
fishing  season,  a fleet  of  boats  which  sails  away  on  the 
morning  breezes  out  to  the  fishing  grounds  beyond  the 
horizon.  Each  river  has  its  own  peculiar  shape  of  boat 
and  the  coasting  trader  of  experience  can  mark  his 
whereabouts  to  within  a few  miles  by  merely  noting  the 
rig  of  the  fleet  through  which  his  vessel  may  chance  to 
be  passing.  Nets  of  all  sorts  and  sizes  are  used  by 
these  deep  sea  fishers,  the  largest  being  the  uan  which 
is  worked  by  twenty  men  or  more.  On  the  western 
side  of  the  gulf  the  boats  which  carry  these  great  nets 
are  frequently  accompanied  to  sea  by  one  or  more  men, 
whose  business  it  is  to  discover  the  exact  whereabouts 
of  the  fish  and  who,  on  arriving  at  the  fishing  grounds, 
leave  the  boat,  each  in  a tiny  canoe,  and  paddling  swiftly 
away  presently  slip  overboard  and  disappear.  Down 
in  the  green  depths  these  divers  can,  if  fairly  expert, 
both  see  and  hear  the  fish,  if  there  is  a shoal  in  the 
immediate  neigbourhood,  and  one  of  them  having  done 
so  at  once  rises  to  the  surface  and  indicates  by  signs 
the  j)resence  and  size  of  the  shoal  and  the  direction  in 
which  it  is  travelling.  No  sooner  are  such  signals 
perceived  on  board  the  waiting  vessel  than  every  man 
jumps  to  his  place  and  seizes  his  paddle  when,  with 
admirably-timed  stroke,  the  great  boat  is  driven 
pkinging  through  the  water,  describing  a wide  circle 
round  the  diver  and  paying  out  net  as  it  goes.  When 


INDUSTRIES 


331 


the  circle  is  complete  all  hands  assist  in  drawing  the 
net  and  if  a good  shoal  has  been  enclosed,  the  wildest 
excitement  prevails  as  the  confined  space  contracts.  In 
mighty  lianls  the  net  comes  on  hoard,  and  with  yells  of 
trinmph  and  delight  the  fishermen  knock  the  larger 
fish  on  the  head  as  they  flounder  and  tumble  in  the 
foaming  water.  Flocks  of  sea-gulls,  attracted  by  the 
commotion,  hover  overhead,  darting  every  now  and  then 
upon  the  seething  mass  within  the  nets  and  carrying  off 
a silvery  prize  to  be  devoured  at  a distance  amid  much 
scpiabbling  and  outcry.  The  sea  breeze  which  springs 
up  about  midday  gives  the  signal  for  the  return  of  the 
fleet  shorewards.  The  wind  freshens  as  the  boats  near 
the  land,  and  is  usually  blowing  strong  when  they  dash 
over  the  foaming  bar  and  into  the  smooth  waters  of  their 
native  river,  bringing  the  result  of  the  day’s  work  to  the 
wharves  of  the  fish  buyers,  usually  Chinese,  where  it  is 
appraised,  bid  for  and  ultimately  bought  and  delivered 
over  to  the  pickling  tubs,  perhaps  before  nightfall. 

Line  fishing  in  the  sea  has  a considerable  number  of 
followers  more  especially  on  the  southern  coasts.  It  is 
usually  done  from  small  canoes  holding  two  men,  and 
very  large  catches  are  often  made.  The  setting  of 
night-lines  for  sharks  and  rays  is  a special  branch  of 
the  fishing  industry.  A long  line  of  very  strong  cord 
is  used  with  hooks  placed  at  intervals  along  it.  Each 
end  is  attached  to  heavy  weights  which  are  sunk  to  the 
bottom  and  marked  by  buoys.  The  lines  are  visited  at 
intervals  by  a stout  sailing-boat  manned  by  a strong 
crew,  when,  seeing  that  sharks  and  sword-fish  sometimes 
here  attain  a length  of  twenty  feet  and  rays  a breadth 
of  eight  feet  across  the  body,  a sport  is  frecjuently  had 
which  roughly  tests  both  vessel  and  men.  The  flesh  of 
these  monsters  of  the  deep  is  cured  and  exported  to 
China,  the  Siamese  themselves  not  being  very  partial  to 
this  form  of  diet. 


332 


SIAM 


For  a foAv  days  during  tlie  months  of  April  or  May 
the  waters  of  the  gulf  swarm  with  a small  species  of 
squid,  the  taking  and  eating  of  which  keeps  all  the 
seaside  dwellers  busy.  At  this  time  everyone  who  owns 
a boat  of  any  degree  of  seaworthiness  puts  off  from  the 
shore  in  it  at  nightfall  with  a hand  net  and  a few  resin 
torches.  A mile  or  so  from  the  shore  the  squid  are 
found  floating  on  the  surface  and  there  the  fishers  stop 
and  spend  the  night  scooping  up  the  repulsive-looking 
but  tasty  morsels,  by  the  light  of  the  smoky  torches,  as 
fast  as  they  can  work  their  arms. 

Drying,  curing  and  pickling  is  far  from  the  least 
arduous  part  of  the  fishing  industry.  Most  owners  of 
Poll  Lemu  have  their  own  outfit  of  drying  stages,  pickling 
vats  and  salting  pits,  but  fishers  with  other  methods 
usually  sell  their  catch  to  the  factories.  Upon  the 
arrival  of  a catch  at  the  factoi\y,  it  is  inspected  without 
loss  of  time  by  certain  old  ladies,  the  leaders  of  gangs 
of  female  fish-cleaners,  who  bid  against  each  other  for 
the  right  to  prepare  it  for  curing.  A bargain  having 
been  struck  at  the  best  possible  figure,  the  operator 
calls  her  following  around  her  and  attacks  the  great 
lieap  of  fish  forthwith,  beheading,  ripping  and  cleaning 
with  extraordinary  dexterity.  Meanwhile  the  pickling 
vats  are  got  ready  by  the  simple  process  of  stirring  up 
the  noisome  fluid  contained  in  the  tubs,  which  is 
seemingly  never  changed  from  the  beginning  of  the 
season  to  the  end.  A little  more  Avater  is  added  and  the 
fish,  as  tliey  are  cleaned,  are  packed  aAA^ay,  each  layer 
being  sprinkled  Avith  salt,  slices  of  lemon,  pepper,  etc. 
Twenty-four  liours  in  the  A^ats,  and  the  fish  are  remoA^ed 
and  spread  on  a series  of  screens  made  of  long  strips  of 
bamboo.  These  are  laid  out  in  the  sun  on  trestles,  and 
after  one  day’s  exposure  the  fish  is  usually  considered 
sufficiently  dried.  Should  the  day  be  cloudy,  hoAA-eA^er, 
and  a further  exposure  therefore  rendered  necessary. 


INDUSTRIES 


333 


the  screens  are  rolled  up  with  the  fish  still  upon  them 
and  stored  until  next  day.  The  final  operation  is  the 
packing,  the  fish  being  pressed  doAvn  tight  into  large 
round  baskets  which  are  sewn  up  with  cane  strips  and 
rolled  into  a corner  to  await  export.  The  amount  of 
fish  cured  and  dried  is  not  less  than  40,000  tons  in  a 
good  year,  of  which  some  20,000  tons  are  consumed  in 
the  country  and  the  remainder  shipped  via  Singapore 
and  Hongkong  to  China. 

The  article  thus  roughly  mannfactnred  is,  as  ma}^  be 
expected,  of  an  indilferent  cpiality  and  subject  to  rapid 
deterioration.  It  suffices,  howcA^er,  for  the  needs  of  the 
people  and  apparently  also  for  those  of  the  peasantry 
of  China  by  AAdiom  nearly  all  that  is  exported  is  eaten. 
A superior  quality  is  procurable  in  small  quantities  but 
CA^en  this  is  inncli  inferior  to  the  cured  fish  of  Europe. 

Kapi,  a condiment  used  xerj  largely  in  Siamese  food 
preparation,  is  a fish-paste  made  of  all  kinds  of  fish 
AA’hen  too  small  or  too  bony  to  be  otherAAdse  used.  It 
is,  in  fact,  a by-product  of  the  fishing  industry,  the 
Avooden  hapi-troiigli  seiwing  as  receptacle  for  all  the 
scraps  and  oddments  and  for  the  rare  and  AA’-onderful 
marine  creatures  other  than  ordinary  fish  A\diich  the 
nets  bring  in.  The  contents  of  the  trough  are  pounded 
and  kneaded,  the  latter  operation  being  often  performed 
Avith  the  feet  of  the  compounder,  and  Avhen  the  mess 
thus  formed  is  half  dry  the  process  is  repeated  Avith  the 
addition  of  a liberal  C[uantity  of  salt  and  the  AA'hole 
alloAved  to  ferment.  The  result  is  a purple-gray  paste 
containing  a good  deal  of  sand  and  giAung  off  a vile 
odour  of  peculiarly  nauseating  proiierty.  This  paste  is 
either  made  into  little  flat  cakes  and  dried  or  stored  in 
the  Avet  state  in  jars.  In  these  forms  ha  pi  finds  its  AA^ay 
into  the  farthest  inland  corners  of  the  country  AAdiere  its 
bouc[uet  permeates  the  atmosphere  of  the  rural  bazaars 
and,  at  the  hours  of  cooking,  proclaims  its  AAudespread 


334 


SIAM 


use  as  a flavouring  essence.  A superior  quality  of  kapi, 
free  from  sand  and  made  of  pounded  and  putrid  prawns, 
finds  favour  with  the  more  refined  classes  while  a 
peculiar  sauce  piquante  made  from  kapi  and  chillies  is 
a condiment  used  by  all  Siamese.  The  kapi  of  the 
Siamese  and  the  ngapi  of  the  Burmese  are  identical 
in  all  but  name.  At  times,  in  places  far  distant  from 
the  sea,  the  stock  of  kapi  gives  out,  but  the  countryman, 
unwilling  to  forego  his  favourite  relish,  substitutes  a 
mess  of  rotten  beans  similar,  though  somewhat  inferior 
to  kapi  in  taste,  and  falling  very  little  short  of  it  in  the 
matter  of  smell. 

The  inland  fisheries  are  almost  more  productive  than 
those  of  the  sea.  The  rivers  and  canals  swarm  with 
fish  all  the  year  round,  w^hile  the  broad  marshes  and 
even  the  rice-fields,  though  for  the  most  part  quite  dry 
during  half  the  year,  are  found  to  be  teeming  with 
aquatic  life  as  soon  as  the  waters  are  out.  The 
problem  which  is  annually  presented  by  the  presence 
of  fish,  often  of  great  size,  in  marshes  and  pools  which, 
dr}^  for  many  months,  receive  tlieir  only  supply  of  water 
from  the  rainfall,  is  one  Avhich  has  been  pondered  by 
many  people  and  sometimes  Avith  astonishing  results. 
But  AA^hether  the  ingenious  theory  is  accepted,  that  the 
spaAAui  is  dropped  by  birds  passing  over  the  AA-ater  and 
develops  instantly  into  fish  of  the  largest  size,  or  that 
the  fish  AA^alk  laboriously  oA^erland  (and  several  species 
can,  in  fact,  do  this  to  some  slight  extent),  or  AAdiether, 
as  is  now  generally  believed  by  naturalists,  both  fish 
and  spaAvn  of  certain  kinds  remain  buried  in  the  mud 
during  the  dry  season  AAnthout  loss  of  Autality,  the  fact 
remains  that  great  SAvamps  AAdiich  liaA^e  no  connection 
with  the  rivers  do  contain  A^ast  quantities  of  cat-fish  ‘ of 
sorts,’  snake -headed  pla  cliaion,  eels  and  other  fish,  a 
never-failing  food  supply  for  the  people  and  a source 
of  considerable  reA^enue  to  the  Government. 


INDUSTRIES 


335 


The  schedule  of  implements  with  which  fresh-water 
fish  are  caught  occupies  many  pages  of  the  Fisheries 
Act  and  even  then  does  not  include  them  all,  many  of 
the  least  important  being  exempted  from  the  restrictions 
of  the  law.  Indeed,  the  ingenuity  of  man  has  for  ages 
been  exercised  to  its  utmost  to  devise  methods  of 
securing  an  adequate  supply  of  fishy  food,  and  all  sorts 
and  variations  of  nets,  traps  and  hooks  are  the  present- 
day  results.  Most  of  the  great  inland  swamp  fisheries 
or  naung  are  annually  leased  by  the  government  and 
these  are  therefore  closed  to  the  general  public,  but  in 
the  rivers  and  canals  anyone  may  fish  to  his  heart’s 
content,  provided  he  has  furnished  himself  with  a 
license  covering  the  particular  implement  to  the  use  of 
which  he  is  addicted. 

The  seine  net  is  used  in  the  rivers  but  of  these  there 
is  not  a large  number.  The  most  common  and  perhaps 
the  most  profitable  of  large  nets  is  the  bag-net  called 
jpong  'pang  which  is  worked  in  the  main  rivers  where  the 
ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide  is  strong.  A row  of  stout  posts 
strengthened  with  guy-ropes  is  planted  in  the  stream 
and  to  these  the  nets  are  attached  in  sets  of  from  four  to 
twelve  ‘mouths,’  stretching  sometimes  more  than  half 
way  across  the  river.  The  opening  of  each  net  is  some 
six  yards  across,  the  body  is  very  long,  sometimes  over 
thirty  yards  and  ends  in  a bag  of  cloth  or  in  a sort  of 
elongated  wooden  barrel.  The  nets  are  set  at  the  turn 
of  the  tide  and  are  taken  up  at  the  slack. 

The  chaun  yai  or  ‘great  spoon,’  is  another  large  net 
used  in  the  main  rivers.  This  is  a triangular  affair 
composed  of  two  long  and  strong  bamboos  fastened 
together  at  one  end  to  form  an  angle  of  about  forty-five 
degrees,  with  a heavy  net  stretched  between.  It  is 
w^orked  from  a boat  anchored  broadside  on  in  mid 
stream,  being  thrust  down  into  the  water  to  form  a 
triangular  barrier  with  the  base  some  forty  feet  across 


336 


SIAM 


on  the  bottom  and  the  apex  at  the  gunwale  of  the  boat. 
At  intervals  it  is  laboriously  spooned  up  against  the 
current  when  any  fish  it  may  contain  are  deftly  jerked 
to  the  apex  and  thence  into  the  boat.  The  chaun  lek  or 
‘ small  spoon  ’ resembles  an  ordinary  shrimp  net  both  in 
appearance  and  in  the  manner  of  using. 

Another  common  form  of  appliance  is  a square  net 
supported  at  each  corner  by  two  rods  which  cross  at 
right  angles  in  the  middle  at  which  point  they  are 
attached  to  a rope  whereby  the  apparatus  is  suspended 
from  a pole.  These  are  of  all  sizes  and  are  used  every- 
where. They  are  lowered  into  the  water  and,  after  an 
interval,  raised  again,  ensnaring  any  fish  which  happen 
to  be  passing  over  them  at  the  time.  In  the  largest  the 
pole  is  fixed  on  the  bank  protruding  over  the  water  and 
a high  platform  is  erected  above  it ; here  sits  the 
fisherman  watching  for  the  fish  to  come  over  the  net 
and  keeping  his  hand  on  a windlass  ready  to  haul  up 
at  a moment’s  notice.  The  smallest  are  about  two  yards 
s([uare  and  hang  like  an  inverted  open  umbrella  from  a 
short  stick  held  by  the  operator.  Nets  very  much 
resembling  these  are  used  on  the  canals  in  Holland. 
The  uan  lak  or  ‘ drag  net,’  is  a plain  oblong  net 
stretched  between  two  sticks  and  held  vertically 
extended  l^y  two  or  more  men  who  draw  it  at  full 
stretch  through  the  water. 

From  a pole  at  the  door  of  almost  every  riverside 
house  and  from  the  mast  of  most  river  boats,  a fine- 
meshed  net  is  often  to  be  seen  hanging  to  dry  in  the 
sun.  This  is  the  he  taut  or  ‘ casting  net,’  used  through- 
out Further  India  and  perhaps  most  common  about 
the  waters  of  Central  Siam.  This  is  not  usually  a net 
liy  which  permanent  livelihood  is  earned  but  is  rather  a 
sporting  reciuisite,  or  the  means  of  procuring  a dish  of 
fresh  fish  when  other  sources  of  supply  are  not  available. 
The  net  is  circular  in  shape  and  varies  from  six  to 


A LAO  FISHING  PARTY. 


FISHING.  CHIENGMAI  DISTRICT. 


FISHING  VILLAGE  ON  THE  GULF  OF  SIAM. 
(Shovvin,!^  appliance  for  holcliipi^  large  square  drop-net.) 


INDUSTRIES 


337 


fifteen  feet  in  diameter.  Round  the  rim  which  is  turned 
inwards  and  looped  up  here  and  there,  is  sewn  a leaden 
chain  and  to  the  centre  a long  cord  is  fastened.  The 
fisherman  holds  the  loose  end  of  this  cord  in  his  hand 
or  ties  it  round  his  wrist,  takes  up  the  net  fold  by  fold 
in  his  two  hands  with  the  slack  thrown  over  one  arm 
and,  standing  in  the  bows  of  his  canoe,  casts  it  out  with 
a long  swinging  motion  so  that  it  falls  fully  spread 
upon  the  water.  The  weight  of  the  rim  causes  the  net 
immediately  to  assume  the  form  of  a bell  and  to  sink  in 
this  form  to  the  bottom,  enclosing  any  fish  which  may 
happen  to  be  beneath  it  when  it  falls.  By  drawing 
gently  on  the  central  cord  the  bell  is  closed  up  and  the 
fish  are  detained  by  the  looped  rim  and  drawn  into  the 
boat.  This  net  is  also  used  in  the  shallow  streams  of 
the  north  where  it  is  cast  from  the  bank.  The  action  of 
casting  is  one  of  the  most  graceful  imaginable  and  looks 
as  easy  as  it  is  graceful,  but  the  novice  will  find  at  the 
cost  of  frequent  duckings  that  in  common  with  other 
simple-looking  accomplishments,  it  makes  much  practice 
necessary  before  proficiency  can  l3e  acquired.  By  the 
annual  pa^-ment  of  from  two  to  five  ticals,  the  fee 
depending  on  the  size  of  the  net,  the  right  may  be 
acquired  to  use  a casting  net  in  any  unreserved 
water. 

Along  the  banks  of  some  of  the  larger  canals  there 
grow  extensive  patches  of  floating  weed  which  are  the 
known  resort  of  many  kinds  of  fish,  and  the  fishing 
rights  over  these  command  a high  price.  On  stated 
occasions  the  fortunate  lessee  calls  his  friends  together 
to  assist  at  a battue  of  the  fish  beneath  his  weed  patches. 
Having  enclosed  this  space  with  bamboo  screens,  and 
cleaned  away  the  weeds,  men,  women,  and  children, 
armed  with  nets,  fish-spears,  baskets  and  other  con- 
trivances, jump  into  the  water  and,  with  much  shouting 
and  laughter,  catch  and  throw  out  the  fish,  of  which 
Y 


.338 


SIAM 


a shilling  heap  soon  accnmnlates  on  the  hank,  to  he 
packed  in  boats  and  sent  off  to  the  nearest  market. 

Here  and  there  among  the  rice-fields  the  owners  dig 
pits  in  which,  as  the  flood  waters  recede,  great  nnmhers 
of  fish  seek  refuge.  The  increasing  heat  evaporates 
the  water  until  only  a thick  solution  of  wallowing  fish 
and  slimy  mad  remains.  Then  comes  along  a fat 
Chinaman  ivlio  inspects  the  mixture,  strikes  a bargain 
with  the  owner,  hales  the  whole  ‘ boiling  ’ into  his  boats, 
and  departs  with  it  all  alive  to  Bangkok. 

Rod  and  line  fishing  is  practised  thronghont  the 
kingdom,  but  the  number  of  people  who  earn  a living 
by  this  means  only  is  small  and  seems  usually  to  consist 
of  old  men  and  ’women  who  are  past  other  work.  As 
a rule  the  gentle  art  of  angling  is  followed  as  an  easy 
and  i^leasant  way  of  assisting  the  larder  and,  though 
its  exponents  undoubtedly  derive  a keen  pleasure  from 
their  occupation,  it  is  not  at  any  time  indulged  in  as 
.a  pastime  merely  and  nothing  more. 

In  the  canals  and  meres  of  Central  Siam  the  famous 
pla  chaivn,  most  delectable  of  fish  in  Siamese  estimation, 
is  taken  with  the  angle,  the  fisherman  standing  on  the 
bank  and  using  a strong  eighteen-foot  rod,  a short  line, 
and  a live  frog  as  bait.  On  the  deep  rivers  during  the 
dry  weather,  canoes,  each  containing  a solitary  fisherman, 
are  to  be  seen  anchored  by  a stone  beneath  a shady 
clump  of  bamboos  or  drifting  with  the  current  in  mid- 
stream. Their  occupant  uses  a short  rod  and  long- 
line  and  has  recourse  to  various  means  for  calling  the 
attention  of  the  fish  to  his  bait,  such  as  beating  a 
small  tin  witli  a stick  or  gently  splashing  the  Avater 
Avith  his  hand.  These  fish,  cjAiite  accustomed  to  the 
continual  presence  of  boats  and  men  upon  the  surface 
of  the  AAUters,  far  from  l3eing  frightened  by  such  noise 
and  commotion,  are  attracted  to  the  spot  AAdience  these 
proceed,  apparently  aAAure  that  such  phenomena  are 


DRAWIXC;  IX  rHK  CASTJX(i  xixr, 


CATCHING  SMALL  FRY  WITH  THE  HELP  OF  BASKETS. 


CATCHING  MUD  FISH  IN  TIDAL  WATERS. 


INDUSTRIES 


339 


frequently  accomjianied  by  tlie’  appearance  of  scrax^s  of 
boiled  rice  or  other  food  in  tlie  immediate  neiglibonr- 
hood.  Ill  tlie  rapid  currents  of  tlie  bill  streams,  an 
artistic  method  of  da^iping  with  a grasshopper  is  often 
very  deadly,  while  large  nnmliers  of  small  fish  are 
taken  with  a short  whippy  rod  and  caddisworm  bait. 
The  European  angler  has  done  little'  or  nothing  in 
Siamese  waters,  though  in  the  rivers  of  Northern 
Siam  it  is  x^robable  that  good  s}iort  could  be  had  with 
fly  and  spoon.  Trimmers  of  various  kinds,  constructed 
of  short  lengths  of  bamboo,  or  of  dried  gourds,  are 
commonly  used,  and  nigiitlines  with  a number  of  baited 
hooks,  are  set  in  all  the  lakes  and  marshes. 

Of  fish-traps  the  variety  is  endless,  perhaps  the 
commonest  being  a mere  clump  of  bushes  stuck  in  the 
river  and  daily  surrounded  Avitli  bamboo  screens  and 
searched  for  the  fish  which  use  it  as  a refuge  or  a 
resting-place.  Cage-trajis,  on  the  jirinciple  of  the 
English  eel-xiot,  are  of  many  designs  and  are  used  under 
the  banks  of  all  riA^ers  and  canals  and  in  the  channels 
in  the  rice-fields.  Trajis  AAuth  a falling  door  are  set 
in  the  Aucinity  of  all  riA^erside  Aullages  and  Aveirs  full 
of  iiiAuting  passages  leading  into  cages  of  Aurious  shapes 
and  degrees  of  ingenuit}^  are  j^l^ced  across  the  mouths 
of  the  smaller  streams.  A quaint  deAuce  consists  of 
a canoe  AAntli  a ])lank  along  the  side  and  slanting 
doAAm  from  the  gunAAule  into  the  AAuter,  paddled  gently 
along  the  inland  creeks  near  the  AAuter’s  edge  at  Ioav 
tide,  AAdien  many  fish  lie  iq^  in  the  shalloAvs.  These, 
surprised  by  the  Ijoat  gliding  between  themseNes  and 
the  safety  of  dee}9  AAuter,  dash  Auolently  out  and  striking 
tlie  sulnnerged  plank  slide  up  it  and  into  the  boat 
AAdiere  they  are  instantly  knocked  on  the  head  by  tlie 
AA'atchful  sportsman.  When  the  tide  is  Ioav  in  the  creeks 
near  the  sea  and  only  a slialloAv  stream  courses  along 
the  middle  of  the  muddy  bottoms,  troops  of  young 


340 


SIAM 


men  and  maidens  come  splashing  down  them,  each  one 
carrying  a hell-shaped  basket  some  tAYo  feet  wide  at  the 
mouth,  Avhich  they  dump  doAvn  into  the  Avater  at  every 
likely  spot,  thereupon  thrusting  an  arm  through  a hole 
at  the  top  and  searching  the  interior  for  cat-fish, 
praAAuis,  yla  cJiawn  or  other  mud-loAung  creatures.  With 
much  laughter  and  talking,  and  plastered  with  wet 
mud  from  to^)  to  toe,  the  fishers  hurry  along,  vying 
AAoth  each  other  for  the  likeliest  spots  and  all  intent 
on  filling  the  small  creels  carried  on  the  back,  before 
night  or  the  tide  overtakes  them.  Along  the  north 
country  streams  a series  of  dams,  one  behind  the  other 
is  sometimes  constructed,  each  dam  having  a single 
opening,  aboA^e  AAdiich  is  built  a platform  and  a little 
hut  AAdiere  the  fishermen  camp  out,  relieving  each  other 
in  turn  at  the  duty  of  staring  doAvn  into  the  clear 
Avater  as  it  rushes  through  the  channel,  and  capturing 
Avith  a hand  net  or  a spear,  the  fish  which  attempt 
to  pass  through.  An  apparently  AA^earisome  occupation 
this,  but  one  Avhich  seems  to  afford  amusement  and 
presumably  also  a meagre  sustenance  to  its  votaries. 

There  is  no  close  time  for  fish  in  Siam  and  the 
campaign  against  them  is  only  intermitted  AAdien  Avater 
is  absent  in  AAdiich  to  prosecute  it.  It  might  seem  there- 
fore that  in  the  end  the  fish  must  be  exterminated  but 
no  sign  is  anyAAdiere  apparent  of  such  a catastrophe  and 
the  numbers  AAdiich  are  annually  caught  and  devoured 
by  man  appear  so  small  in  comparison  AAdth  the  teeming 
millions  AAdiich  escape  his  artifices  as  to  liaA^e  absolutely 
no  effect  upon  the  supply.  It  is  probable,  hoAA^ever,  that 
irrigation  AA^orks,  by  draining  the  SAvamps  and  meres 
and  by  curtailing  the  annual  floods,  may  at  some  future 
date  deprive  tlie  Siamese  in  some  small  measure  of 
fresh-AAnter  fish. 


INDUSTRIES 


341 


Hunting  and  Trapping 

The  Siamese,  cliiefl.y  on  account  of  the  Bnddliist  law, 
which  forbids  the  taking  of  life,  is  rarely  a keen  follower 
of  the  chase  and  hardly  ever  resorts  to  hunting  or 
trapping  as  a sole  means  of  livelihood.  It  is  one  thing 
and  quite  bad  enough,  some  say,  to  take  fish,  which, 
though  certainly  living  creatures,  are  cold-blooded  and 
of  a rudimentary  intelligence  and  after  all  are  not 
usually  killed,  but  are  merely  removed  from  the  Avater. 
It  is  quite  another  matter  to  shoot,  stab  or  club  to  death, 
Avarm-blooded  and  breathing  creatures  Avliich  fly  in 
eAudent  terror  before  the  huntsman,  employ  an  instinct 
AA4iich  is  near  intelligence  in  trying  to  elude  him,  and 
dying  look  upon  their  slayer  Avith  frightened  eyes  that 
cause  him  disquieting  qualms.  It  is  not  difficult  to 
understand  Iioav  the  indulgence  extended  by  public 
opinion  to  a fisherman  is  AAnthheld  from  a hunter,  more 
especially  AAdien  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  the  public  must 
and  Avill  haA^e  fish  but  can  usually  manage  Avithout  game. 
HoAA^eA^er,  there  are  breakers  of  commandments  among 
the  folloAvers  of  every  faith  and  a feAv  Siamese  are 
sportsmen,  AAffiile  here  and  there  a man  is  found  aaTo 
makes  a Ihung  by  killing  and  trapping  AAuld  animals. 
Beasts  of  prey  are  trapped  and  shot  in  self  defence  and 
deer  are  hunted,  more  especially  AAdien  the  rising  Avaters 
cut  them  off  in  the  plains  from  their  jungle  retreats 
and  render  them  comparatiAmly  easy  Auctims  to  the 
hunters.  Among  the  lesser  animals  the  hare,  in  spite 
of  a reputation  for  superior  intelligence  and  cunning 
supported  by  many  xiopular  legends  of  the  ‘ Brer  Rabbit  ’ 
type  in  AAdiich  he  figures  as  hero,  is  specially  singled  out 
for  the  diA^ersion  of  sj)ortsmen.  In  the  scrub  jungle 
surrounding  Aullages,  AAliere  he  loA^es  to  linger,  Ioav 
hedges  are  made,  sometimes  of  great  length,  converging 
by  deAnous  AA^ays  toAA^ards  a small  enclosure.  The  youths 


342 


SIAM 


of  tlie  village,  armed  with  clubs,  beat  the  jungle  from  a 
distance  towards  this  maze  and  the  bares  having  been 
driA^en  within  it,  course  along  beside  the  hedges  until 
the  small  enclosure  is  reached  Avhen,  Avdth  a Avild  shout, 
tAvo  or  three  men  in  ambush  leap  out  behind  them, 
hurry  them  into  the  enclosure  and  there  dispatch  them 
with  sticks. 

Wild  ele]Dliants  are  numerous  in  Siam  both  in  the 
mountains  and  on  the  plains.  While  all  are  considered 
the  especial  property  of  the  king,  only  those  Avhich 
inhabit  the  plains  are  preseiwed,  the  others  being  left 
at  the  disposal  of  the  hillmen  or  any  other  sportsmen 
A\dio  may  care  to  pursue  them.  The  elephants  of  the 
plains  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  Avild,  for  a large 
Government  Dei)artment  has  them,  as  Avell  as  the  royal 
domesticated  animals,  under  its  particular  care.  The 
herds,  of  which  there  are  several  comprising  some  300 
individuals,  are  alloAved  to  AA^ander  at  aauII  but  are  kept 
constantly  under  supervision  and  can  at  any  time  be 
rounded  up  for  inspection  by  the  officers  of  the  De]3art- 
ment.  The  people  are  forbidden  under  pain  of  severe 
punishment  to  driA^e  or  in  any  AA-ay  molest  the  animals, 
eA^en  AAdien  their  crops  are  threatened  by  them.  Indeed 
it  happens  eA^-ery  year  that  the  herds  iiwade  the  fields  of 
young  rice  in  some  neighbourhood  or  other,  destroying 
large  areas  of  crop  Avhich  the  OAvners  are  not  alloAA^ed  to 
protect  and  for  AAdiich  they  usually  fail  to  obtain  any 
compensation. 

Outside  tlie  modern  city  of  Ayuthia  and  on  the  ground 
of  many  a historic  fight  of  the  old  Avars  Avith  Burma, 
tliere  stands  a great  square  enclosure  of  huge  teak  logs 
and  massive  AA^alls,  the  latter  surmounted  by  a ro}"al 
pavilion,  and  here  are  held  the  periodical  elephant 
catchings  Avhich  haA^e  furnished  copy  for  many  a 
Euroj^ean  magazine  article.  These  diversions  are 
regarded  in  Siam,  not  merely  nominally  but  actually, 


INDUSTRIES 


343 


as  the  sport  of  kings,  and  most  perij^atetic  scions  of 
foreign  royalty  who  have  visited  the  country  have  wit- 
nessed the  taking  of  elephants  from  the  pavilion  on  the 
keddah  walls,  in  company  with  His  Majesty  the  King. 
On  such  occasions  Ayiithia  wears  a holiday  aspect.  Its 
numerous  canals  are  thronged  with  boats  of  every 
description,  many  thousands  of  people  coming  from 
Bangkok  by  river  to  see  the  sport  and  enjoy  a picnic 
on  the  water.  Excursion  trains  run  during  the  three 
days  of  the  catching,  bringing  croAvds  of  holiday-makers 
for  Avhose  coiwenience  steam-launches  ply  between  the 
raihvay  station  and  the  keddah.  The  keddah  itself 
flutters  with  bunting  and  a troop  of  seiwants  prepare 
the  pavilion  to  receHe  the  royal  sportsmen.  Soldiers 
are  on  duty  at  A^arious  points  and  the  blue-uniformed 
myrmidons  of  the  Elephant  Department  are  eA^eryAvhere. 
The  king  arriA^es  escorting  his  royal  guest  and  folloAA^ed 
by  Court  officials  and  members  of  the  royal  family  and 
passes,  smiling,  through  the  gaily-dressed  croAvd  draAvn 
respectfully  aside,  to  his  seat  in  the  pavilion.  Mean- 
AAdiile  and  for  many  days  before,  the  elephants  liaA^e 
been  sIoaaTv  driA^en  up  from  their  distant  feeding- 
grounds  and  are  noAv  out  on  the  plain  before  the  keddah, 
shepherded  by  attendants  mounted  on  large  and 
Avell-trained  tuskers.  At  a aa^oitI  from  Majesty  orders 
are  passed  and  the  herd  moves  forAvard  and  enters  the 
V-shaped  palisade  AAdiich  converges  toAA’-ards  the  entrance 
of  the  keddah,  a narroAv  opening  through  AAdiich  only 
one  animal  can  pass  at  a time.  DriA^en  on  from  behind, 
into  the  ever  diminishing  sjiace,  tlie  huge  beasts,  of 
AAdiich  there  may  be  some  150  ]u-esent,  noAv  l^egin  to 
crush  and  push  against  each  other  and  a deafening 
uproar  ensues,  continuing  unabated  for  hours  until, 
with  titanic  lieaAdngs  and  strugglings,  the  Avhole  herd 
has  passed  through  the  narroAv  entrance  and  has 
arriA^ed,  furious  from  s])ear-pricks  of  attendants  and 


344 


SIAM 


Imstlings  of  the  tame  animals  and  trembling  with 
outraged  dignity,  in  the  interior  of  the  keddah.  On 
the  second  day  the  catchers  enter  the  enclosure,  seated 
upon  tuskers  of  proved  reliability  and,  having  selected 
from  the  herd  the  dozen  or  so  of  young  males  which  it 
is  desired  to  capture,  proceed  to  the  difficult  task  of 
passing  a noose  of  strong  rattan  cable  over  the  hind 
feet  of  these.  This  is  done  by  driving  and  following 
the  herd  round  and  round  the  interior  of  the  keddah 
with  the  noose  held  ever  readj^  on  the  end  of  a long 
pole,  forcing  the  docile  tusker  close  up  to  the  selected 
animal  and,  while  the  latter  lifts  his  feet  in  walking, 
slipping  the  loop  over  one  of  them  and  as  far  up  the 
leg  as  possible.  The  tusker  then  turns  tail  and  retreats, 
paying  out  slack  cable  the  end  of  which  is  seized  by 
assistants  who  dash  into  the  arena  and  make  it  fast 
to  one  of  the  palisades.  Meanwhile,  the  noosed  animal 
walks  round  with  the  herd  until,  the  cable  running 
taut,  he  is  brought  up  standing,  and  with  a roar  of  rage 
and  fear  begins  a long  and  fruitless  struggle  against 
the  fate  which  has  overtaken  him.  The  captives  having 
been  made,  a small  exit  is  opened  in  the  keddah  wall 
opposite  to  the  entrance  and  the  remainder  of  the  herd 
is  driven  out  into  the  open,  where  it  is  received  by  the 
shepherd  tuskers.  The  prisoners  are  then  taken  in 
tow,  not  without  furious  resistance  and  desj^erate  attacks 
upon  their  captors,  and  are  hustled  and  shouldered,  amid 
derisive  cheers  from  the  thousands  of  spectators  massed 
upon  the  walls,  out  of  the  enclosure  and  away  to  the 
stable,  the  scene  of  their  future  education. 

The  third  day  of  the  catching  is  entirely  devoted  to 
frivolities.  The  herd,  now  thoroughly  exasperated  by 
unmannerly  hustling  and  by  constant  proddings  with 
spears  at  the  hands  of  the  riders  of  the  shepherd  males, 
and  containing  more  than  one  female  rendered  desperate 
by  the  loss  of  her  offspring,  is  marshalled  in  the  open 


ELEPHANT  CATCHING  IN  THE  “ KEDDAH 
(Trained  lubkers  going  in  with  leg-nooses.) 


WILD  ELEPHANTS  IN  “ERAAL”  AT  AA'UTHIA- 


INDUSTRIES 


345 


ground  outside  the  keddali  and  separated  from  the 
crowd  only  by  the  tame  tuskers.  Anon  a young  man, 
gaily  dressed,  carrying  an  umbrella  and  smoking  a 
cigar,  slips  between  the  docile  guardians  and  strolls, 
an  object  of  admiration  to  the  whole  vast  assembly, 
across  the  open  towards  the  angry  herd.  The  elephants 
shrink  back,  all  heads  turned  towards  the  intruder  and 
all  ears  outspread.  Suddenly  with  a bellow  an  old  cow 
rushes  out,  tail  and  trunk  erect  and  ears  spread  wide, 
and  makes  for  the  pedestrian.  He,  intrepid  fellow, 
waits  till  she  is  towering  close  above  him,  then  with  a 
flirt  of  his  parasol  in  her  face,  darts  back  between  the 
tuskers  who  receive  the  baffled  female  on  their  foreheads 
and  drive  her  back  to  the  herd.  This  performance  is 
repeated  again  and  again  with  such  variations  as  the 
human  performers,  stimulated  by  the  presence  of  ro^mlty 
and  by  a thirst  for  glory,  can  devise.  Sooner  or  later 
one  of  the  elephants  eludes  the  tame  tuskers  and  appears 
suddenly,  furious  and  trumpeting,  amongst  the  crowd. 
In  the  general  stampede  which  ensues,  the  great  beast 
appears  bewildered  and,  unable  to  select  a victim  for  its 
wrath,  usually  stands  stock  still  until  all  have  reached 
points  of  safety.  Sometimes,  however,  excessive  fool- 
hardiness or  a false  step  and  a fall,  fixes  the  attention  of 
the  elephant  upon  one  individual  who  is  overtaken  and 
with  a sweep  of  the  trunk  or  a side  kick  is  knocked  out 
of  existence  in  a trice.  Unless  one  or  more  of  such 
gruesome  incidents  occur,  the  day’s  enjoyment  in  the 
popular  estimation  is  incomplete.  With  the  close  of 
the  third  day  the  crowds  disperse  by  railway  and  river 
and  the  morrow’s  dawn  finds  the  keddali  deserted  and 
the  herd  of  wild  elephants  already  far  on  its  way  across 
the  plain  back  to  the  feeding  grounds. 

Once  iqion  a time  the  destruction  of  crocodiles  was  a 
recognised  business  in  Siam,  and  Pallegoix  records  how, 
so  late  as  1852,  many  persons  practised  the  art  of  taking 


346 


SIAM 


them  alive,  apparently  for  amnsement’s  sake.  Now^ 
however,  the  crocodile  is  rare  in  Siamese  waters  near 
the  haunts  of  men  and  doubtless  it  will  soon  be  alto- 
gether extinct  except  in  the  marshes  of  the  far  interior. 
Occasional!}^,  however,  one  is  reported  in  the  environs 
of  Bangkok  and  steps  are  at  once  taken  to  secure  it. 
The  services  of  a witch-doctor  are  secured  and  a large 
party,  anticipating  a day’s  entertainment,  accompanies 
him  in  boats  to  the  haunt  of  the  animal.  Arriving  at 
the  spot  the  witch-doctor  begins  operations  by  burning 
joss  sticks  and  repeating  incantations  appropriate  to 
the  occasion.  Finally  he  fastens  a live  monkey  securely 
to  a plank,  cuts  off  its  hands,  and  sets  it  afloat.  Either 
the  power  of  the  incantations,  the  cries  of  the  cruelly 
mutilated  animal,  or  the  blood  with  which  the  water  is 
at  once  sprinkled,  acts  so  strongly  upon  the  crocodile 
that,  in  spite  of  the  number  of  boats  full  of  noisy  excited 
spectators,  he  almost  invariably  comes  to  the  surface,, 
when  he  is  instantly  secured  with  rope  nooses  and 
carried  off  in  triumph. 

It  is  chiefly  amongst  the  non-Buddhist  tribesmen  of 
the  highlands  that  the  true  hunting  spirit  is  to  be 
found.  In  the  mountainous  jungles,  game  of  all  kinds 
is  abundant  and  man,  unhampered  b}^  religious  scruples 
and  spurred  on  b}^  hunger,  wages  against  it  a continual 
war  of  trap,  knife,  and  missile.  Even  the  eleidiant, 
wilder  and  fiercer  here  than  are  his  brothers  of  the 
plain,  goes  down  before  the  savage  hunters  of  the  hills, 
for  the  diminutive  Semang  shoots  him  in  the  foot  with 
a tiny  poisoned  arrow,  the  wily  Karien  hamstrings  him 
from  behind  a bush  and  the  Ivainuk  riddles  him  with 
balls  from  an  old  Tower  musket.  The  majestic  bison 
and  the  rhinoceros  also  fall  victims  to  the  hillman’s 
guile,  while  pig,  deer  and  other  animals  are  beaten  out 
of  the  jungle,  and  then  shot  in  the  most  approved  style. 
With  the  liillman,  trapping  is  a fine  art.  All  kinds  of 


INDUSTRIES 


347 


wild  animals  as  well  as  many  of  the  larger  birds  are 
caught  with  pitfalls,  nooses,  cage-traps,  springes  and 
other  contrivances.  Most  are  killed  in  the  trap  but 
now  and  then  a tiger,  Malayan  tapir,  sambar,  Sclioin- 
bnrgk’s  deer  or  barking  deer,  is  taken  alive  and  sold 
in  the  plains,  while  pea  fowl,  pheasants  and  many  other 
birds  are  frequently  kept  in  captivity. 

To  the  European  hunter  of  game,  Siam  is  ]3ractically 
a sealed  book.  A few  tiger,  rhino  and  bison  and  more 
often  various  kinds  of  deer,  have  been  bagged  by 
Forest  Officers  and  others  whose  calling  takes  them  into 
the  wilds  but,  though  game  is  plentiful,  the  best  districts 
are  difficult  to  reach,  while  the  presence  of  dense  jungle 
and  total  absence  of  Khahar,  are  obstacles  difficult 
to  snrmonnt,  so  that  the  white  sportsman  rarely  ventures 
beyond  the  snipe-grounds  round  about  Bangkok,  where 
enormous  bags  are  secured  by  week-end  shooting 
parties. 


Forestry 

Mention  has  more  than  once  ]3een  made  of  the  dense 
vegetation  which  clothes  all  the  monntains  and  many  of 
the  valleys  and  plains  of  Siam  and,  in  the  notes  upon 
the  Flora  of  the  country,  the  nnmerons  orders  of  ])lants 
which  are  represented  in  different  localities  hy  forest 
trees,  often  of  great  size  and  mnch  commercial  value, 
liaA^e  been  enumerated. 

It  may  not,  however,  have  been  made  sufficiently  cleai- 
how  great  is  the  area  under  forest  of  one  kind  or  another 
in  proportion  to  the  cultivated  or  otherwise  open  part 
of  the  country ; how,  in  fact,  more  than  three 
quarters  of  the  total  area  is  practically  uninhabited 
land  in  which  wild  nature  works  nntrammelled  and  of 
which,  though  teeming  with  her  spontaneous  products. 


348 


SIAM 


the  greater  part  is,  under  present  circumstances, 
practically  without  profit  or  advantage  to  the  State. 
In  Central  Siam,  it  is  true,  the  forest  area  is  small 
compared  with  that  of  the  open  and  cultivated  land 
but  in  the  other  three  main  divisions  of  the  country  the 
presence  of  mankind  is  marked  by  little  more  than 
mere  patches  and  narrow  belts  of  cleared  land  along 
the  banks  of  streams  and  in  other  favourable  spots, 
at  the  edges  of  which  the  natural  forces  stand  arrayed, 
prepared  to  obliterate  even  these  poor  traces  whenever 
human  effort  may  be  relaxed. 

The  forests  of  Siam,  which  in  most  respects  closely 
resemble  those  of  Burma,  may  be  considered  in  two 
main  divisions,  namely  ‘ Evergreen  ’ and  ‘ Deciduous  ’ 
forests,  each  of  which  may  be  further  divided  into 
three  distinct  classes  or  types,  these  coming  under 
‘ Evergreen  forests  ’ : (1)  Littoral  forests,  (2)  Tropical 
Evergreen  forests,  (3)  Semi-temperate  Evergreen  forests  ; 
Avhile  the  division  ‘ Deciduous  ’ forests  includes  (1) 
Laterite  forests,  (2)  Dry  mixed  forests  and  (3)  Teak 
forests. 

Littoral  forests  are  confined  to  a small  area  in  Siam, 
being  present  only  at  such  spots  on  or  near  the  sea- 
shore where  the  land  is  low-lying,  formed  of  mud  and 
covered  with  salt-water  swamps.  The  largest  of  them 
are  situated  round  about  the  mouth  of  the  Menam  Chao 
Phaya  river  and  along  the  northern  shore  of  the  Gulf 
of  Siam  ; also  in  parts  of  the  Chantaburi  and  Puket 
Montons.  They  are  composed  almost  entirely  of 
arboreal  species  of  the  order  Ehizoplioracece,  some 
thirty  or  more  species,  collectively  knoAvn  as  Man- 
grove, being  x>i’esent.  Most  of  them  attain  to  consider- 
able size  and,  with  closely  interlacing  roots  and 
branches,  form  the  most  impenetrable  of  jungles. 
Although  these  forests  are  practically  uninhabitable  on 
account  of  the  vast  numbers  of  mosquitos  which 


INDUSTRIES 


349 


infest  them,  and  although  they  produce  no  timber  of  any 
durability,  yet  they  are  not  without  economic  value,  for 
their  wood  is  peculiarly  adapted  for  use  as  fuel.  In 
former  times  the  littoral  forests  along  the  northern  shore 
of  the  Gulf,  in  places  some  ten  miles  wide  and  in  total  area 
about  100  square  miles,  have  been  regarded  as  common 
lands  to  which  any  person  might  resort  to  cut  fuel  for 
private  use  or  for  sale,  subject  only  to  an  octroi  duty  on 
conveying  the  same  up  the  river  to  Bangkok.  Of  late 
years,  however,  money  has  been  invested  by  individuals 
in  cutting  waterways  through  the  dense  jungle,  whereby 
inner  regions  have  been  made  accessible  and  jirescriptive 
rights  have  grown  up  which  the  Government  appears 
inclined  to  recognise  by  the  issue  of  permanent  title  deeds, 
though  it  is  probable  that  in  so  doing  the  State  is  abandon- 
ing what  might  with  conservation  be  made  a prolific 
source  of  rcA^enue. 

The  species  which  proAude  the  best  fuel  are  those  knoAAUi 
in  Siamese  as  Mai  Kongkang,  Mai  Same,  Mai  Kahun,  and 
Mai  Lam.  These  are  all  of  raj^id  groAvth,  in  scA-eii  years 
attaining  a girth  of  about  20  inches,  but  in  consequence 
of  the  increasing  demand  for  firewood  in  Bangkok,  few 
trees  in  the  accessible  parts  are  alloAved  to  reach  that  size 
and  Avere  it  not  for  the  extraordinary  vitality  of  the  plants, 
the  roots  of  which  send  forth  fresh  shoots  as  soon  as  the 
tree  is  felled,  it  is  probable  that  the  forests  AA^ould  before 
long  be  quite  Avorked  out.  The  bark  of  seA^eral  species 
of  the  trees  AAdiich  groAv  in  mangroA^e  SAAumps  yields  the 
A^aluable  tanning  and  dyeing  substance  knoAAui  in  com- 
merce as  cutch,  and  at  various  places  on  the  island  of 
Borneo  this  is  extracted  at  a considerable  profit,  the  Aulue 
of  the  timber  as  fuel  l3eing  in  no  AA^ay  impaired  thereby. 
In  Siam,  ImAA^eA^er,  this  property  of  the  bark  of  the 
BliizoiDlioracece  does  not  appear  to  be  knoAAUi  and 
the  AAdiole  of  the  bark  of  the  trees  felled  for  fuel 
is  AA’asted.  Both  in  America  and  in  Europe  the 


350 


SIAM 


supply  of  oak  and  hemlock  bark  for  tanning  is  constantly 
diminishing  and  it  would  therefore  seem  to  be  worth  the 
while  of  the  Siamese  Government  to  encourage  experi- 
ments in  the  cutch-joroducing  capacities  of  its  littoral 
forests. 

Wherever  the  sea  beach  assumes  anything  of  a slope, 
and  mud  gives  place  to  sand,  the  Mangrove  disappears 
and  is  replaced  by  the  graceful  Casuarina  tree  for  which, 
however,  no  use  other  than  that  of  ornament  has  yet 
been  found. 

Tropical  Evergreen  forests  consist  of  two  broad  belts, 
the  one  passing  up  from  Chantaburi  along  the  eastern 
frontier  districts  to  Udon,  and  the  other  from  the  most 
southerly  point  of  Southern  Siam  up  through  the  whole 
of  that  part  and  along  the  frontier  districts  in  the  west 
of  Central  and  Northern  Siam.  The  eastern  belt  touches 
the  coast  in  the  south  and  follows  the  line  of  mountains 
thence  to  its  other  extremity  on  the  Mehkong  river,  its 
width  varying  from  four  or  five  to  nearly  one  hundred 
miles.  The  western  belt  clothes  the  mountains  as  also 
by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  valleys  and  plains  of 
Southern  Siam,  informs  the  wild  scenery  of  the  upper 
]\[eklong  riA^er  A^alleys,  is  conterminous  Avith  the  ever- 
green forests  of  the  Tenasserim  Division  in  Burma  and 
merges  at  last  into  the  semi-tropical  evergreen  forests 
of  the  far  north  of  Siam.  These  forests  abound  AAuth 
timber  trees  of  many  species,  the  potential  value  of 
Avhicli  is  almost  incalculable  but  Avhich,  in  the  absence 
of  means  for  extraction,  are  actually  AA^orth  little  or 
nothing.  Let  the  traA^eller  ascend  a hill  near  Chantaburi 
or  at  Kabin,  or  anyA\diere  in  the  Patani,  Chumporn,  or 
Nakhon  SaAvaii  divisions,  and  scenes  of  almost  exact 
similarity  unroll  themselves  before  him  ; mile  upon 
mile  of  dense  green  forest  unbroken  saA^e  for  occasional 
patches  of  rice-fields,  spreading  across  plains  and  up 
the  sides  of  mountains ; forests  Avdiere  the  gigantic 


INDUSTRIES 


351 


Dipterocai'pus  turhinatus  (Mai  Yang)  and  Ilopea  odorata 
(Mai  Takion)  stand  up  consx^icnons  with  their  canopies 
of  dense  and  vivid  foliage,  where  Rosewood,*  Box- 
wood,! Ebony,!  and  Brazilwood  or  Sapaii  § are  massed 
together  with  trees  of  a hundred  other  species  all  inter- 
laced b}^  rattan  canes  or  perhaps  by  huge  guttapercha- 
yielding  climbers.  Beneath  these  masses  of  foliage  is  a 
rampant  undergrowth  of  shrubs,  bamboos,  cane-brake  and 
smaller  plants,  of  which  those  belonging  to  the  Ginger 
Zvngiheraceae  are  perhaj^s  most  common,  and  here 
the  Rhinoceros,  the  Bison  and  the  strange  Malayan  Tapir 
may  be  met  with,  monkeys  of  man}-  kinds  may  be  seen 
gambolling  in  the  trees,  and  the  Giant  Hornbill  may 
be  heard  winging  noisily  overhead. 

The  hnman  inhabitants  of  these  forests  are  few  and 
are  almost  entirely  persons  engaged  in  the  collection 
of  wood-oil,  canes,  bamboos  and  other  minor  forest 
produce,  and  in  the  felling  of  timber,  of  which  the  more 
valuable  kinds  are  extracted  to  some  trifling  extent. 

Tlie  various  species  of  trees  which  compose  the  forests 
are  not  mingled  in  the  same  proportion  throughout ; 
thus  in  the  Peninsnlar  regions  Lagerstroemia  tomentosa 
{Mai  Intanin)  and  another  tree  called  in  Siamese  Mai 
Kiam,  both  excellent  hardwood  trees,  preponderate, 
while  in  the  tro]^ical  evergreen  forests  of  the  eastern 
districts,  Mai  Taikien  and  Mai  Yang  are  more  especially 
abundant.  Again,  in  the  western  forests  of  Central 
Siam  Xylia  xyJocarpa  known  as  Mai  Deng  or  ‘ red 
wood  ’ in  Siamese  is  the  principal  timlier  tree,  while 
this  is  also  the  favourite  locality  of  the  Sapan  and 
box-wood.  Practically  nothing  has  been  done  in  tlie 
direction  of  conservation  in  these  forests,  with  which, 
in  fact,  the  Royal  Forest  department  is  not  in  any  way 

f ]VIai  Dam. 

§ Mai  Fang  (Mai.  Sepang). 


* Mai  Pa  Yung, 
t Mai  Put. 


352 


SIAM 


concerned.  It  is  to  be  expected,  however,  that  this  very 
valuable  asset  of  the  country  will  not  forever  remain 
nnexploited  and  already  a European  company  is  extract- 
ing timber  from  one  district  in  Southern  Siam  under  a 
concession  recently  obtained  from  the  Government. 
Hence  it  would  be  well  if  these  forests  were  before  long 
brought  under  the  administration  of  the  Forest  Depart- 
ment, in  order  that  the  Government  may  be  x> repared 
to  make  the  most  of  its  property  when  the  time  comes. 
The  world’s  supj)ly  of  timber  is  said  to  be  in  danger 
of  running  short  and  it  has  recently  been  prophesied 
that  eighty  years  will  see  the  practical  exhaustion  of 
soft  timber  of  the  kinds  at  present  in  use.  Long  before 
then  the  world  will  have  discovered  that  the  evergreen 
forests  of  Siam  contain  many  species  of  soft  wood  trees, 
and  as  the  timber  trader  finds  the  woods  of  his  own 
lands  becoming  insufficient  to  supply  his  wants  he  will 
most  assuredly  turn  his  attention  to  other  and  more 
distant  sources  of  supply,  amongst  which  Siam  will  take 
a prominent  place. 

Semi-temi^erate  evergreen  forests  occur  at  a high 
elevation  on  the  mountains  of  Northern  Siam  and  con- 
sist of  a mingling  of  the  trees  of  the  temperate  zone 
with  those  of  the  Tropical  forests.  Here  are  found  bamboos 
and  palms  of  numerous  species  interspersed  among 
groves  of  pine,  oak  and  chestnut.  These  last  are  of 
many  species  and  though  closely  related  to  the  European 
varieties,  are  all  evergreens.  Such  forests  are  compara- 
tively free  from  undergrowth  and  often  have  a park- 
like apijearance  very  pleasing  to  the  view.  The  trees 
do  not  as  a rule  attain  to  the  size  of  the  monsters  of 
the  Trojjical  forests  and  have  not  hitherto  been  made 
use  of  to  any  extent  as  timber.  A certain  quantity  of 
resin  is  extracted  from  the  pine  trees  for  the  making 
of  torches  and  the  concoction  of  a rough  native  medicine 
for  healing  wounds,  and  a few  logs  of  ornamental  or 


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353 


scented  woods  Avliich  command  a high  price  are  occasion- 
ally extracted  for  sale.  Otherwise  the  forests  of  this 
category  are  without  recognised  value. 

Laterite  forest  is  the  name  given  to  the  jungles 
which  contain  trees  peculiar  to  the  laterite  soil  and  which 
completely  cover  the  greater  part  of  Eastern  Siam  and 
occur  in  belts  and  patches  elsewhere,  excei3t  in  Southern 
Siam.  The  vernacular  name  for  such  forests  is  Pa  Mai 
Teng  Lang,  derived  from  the  trees  Sliorea  ohtusa  {Mai 
Teng)  and  Pentaeme  siamensis  {Mai  Lang)  which,  together 
with  Dipterocaigms  tubereulatus  {Mai  Pluang),  predomi- 
nate therein.  These  forests  are  thin  and  contain  a great 
deal  of  open  space  and  being  deciduous,  wear  during 
the  months  of  the  hot  season,  a dry  and  scorched 
appearance.  Both  Mai  Teng  and  Mai  Lang  are  of  some 
value  as  timber  and  are  extracted  for  local  use  and  for 
sale.  In  the  absence  of  all  control  the  trees  have  been 
recklessly  felled  and  now  are  seldom  found  of  anything 
but  insignificant  size  except  in  places  where  there  is  no 
population  anywhere  near.  The  undergrowth  consists 
chiefly  of  grass  which  becomes  completely  dry  during 
the  hot  weather  and  causes  forest  fires  of  Avide  extent, 
effectually  preAxnting  the  groAvth  of  A^oung  trees  to  take 
the  place  of  those  AAfliich  are  annually  extracted.  During 
the  months  of  April  and  May  the  atmosphere  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  these  forests  is  alAA^ays  hazy  and 
charged  Avith  smoke  and  after  nightfall  long  lines  of 
fire  are  Ausibly  AA^orking  their  AA^ay  sloAAdy  across  the 
plains  and  up  the  sides  of  the  hills.  Mai  Teng  yields 
a good  deal  of  resinous  pitch  but  it  is  not  obtained  in 
sufficient  quantities  to  more  than  satisfy  local  needs. 
]Many  trees  other  than  the  feAv  AAfliich  liaA^e  been  mentioned, 
are  found  in  these  Laterite  forests  luit  they  are  in  no 
AAuy  remarkable  and  liaA^e  not  yet  been  discoA^ered  to 
be  of  any  economic  A^alue. 

flflie  forests  knoAAui  as  Pa  Mai  Bencliapan,  or  ‘ the 
z 


354 


SIAM 


jungle  of  the  five  kinds  of  trees,’  Forets  Clairieres, 
or  Dry  Mixed  forests,  occur  in  those  parts  of  the  country 
where  the  soil  is  not  lateritic  hut  where  other  conditions 
are  the  same  as  in  Laterite  forest  tracts.  The  chief 
features  of  these  are  the  abundance  of  bamboo  thickets 
and  their  general  open  and  thin  nature.  They  contain 
several  species  of  good  timber  trees  but  most  of  them 
are  too  heavy  to  be  extracted  by  the  primitive  methods 
of  the  people,  and  too  close-grained  to  be  worked  with 
the  only  tools  which  they  have  at  their  disposal.  The  Mai 
Kahak,  however,  one  of  the  many  species  of  Lagerstroemia 
found  in  Siam,  is  easy  to  work,  and  being  very  plentiful 
provides  a great  deal  of  timber  for  local  use  and  a certain 
amount  for  sale.  These  forests  make  excellent  grazing 
grounds  and  it  is  in'  them  or  rather  on  their  outskirts 
that  most  of  the  cattle  of  Siam  are  raised. 

The  Dry  mixed  forests  pass  by  imperceptible  degrees 
into  the  great  Deciduous  Forests  of  Northern  Siam,  which 
contain  many  valuable  timber  trees  and  where  alone  the 
Government  has  hitherto  taken  steps  to  control  the  action 
of  timber  workers.  The  teak  tree  (Tectona  gi^andis),  which 
is  one  of  the  most  valuable  in  the  world,  grows  abund- 
antly in  these  forests  where  it  has  been  worked  and  used 
locally  from  time  immemorial.  About  the  year  1882,  the 
attention  of  foreigners,  chiefly  that  of  the  British  who  were 
already  working  teak  in  Burma,  was  attracted  to  the 
forests  of  Siam  and  an  export  trade  in  teak  arose  which, 
after  the  annexation  of  Upper  Burma  by  England  and 
the  consequent  cJiecking  of  the  teak  trade  there,  assumed 
large  proportions.  At  the  same  time  the  price  of  the  article 
increased  rapidly  whereby  the  trade  acquired  additional 
impetus  and  soon  the  forests  were  being  attacked  in  all 
directions  and  subjected  to  indiscriminate  girdling  and 
felling.  At  that  time  the  forests  were  regarded  by  the 
Government  as  the  property  of  the  Hereditary  Lao  Chiefs 
who  ruled  in  different  parts  of  Northern  Siam,  and  these 


INDUSTRIES 


355 


persons,  entirely  disregarding  the  necessity  for  con- 
serving the  teak  against  extinction,  sold  and  gave  away 
forest  rights  in  a manner  wdiich,  if  allowed  to  continne, 
must  have  ended  by  exliansting  them  and  thus  depriving 
Xorthern  Siam  of  the  principal  source  of  its  revenues. 
At  this  juncture  the  Siamese  Government  stepped  in  and 
took  over  the  forests,  assuming  entire  control  and  com- 
pensating the  chiefs  in  money  for  the  loss  of  their  rights, 
and  an  officer  of  the  Imperial  Forest  Department  of 
British  India  was  engaged  to  examine  and  report  on  the 
condition  of  the  property.  The  officer  arrived  in  the 
country  in  the  year  1895  and  made  an  exhaustive  inspec- 
tion, during  the  jDeriod  occnj^ied  by  which  the  lessees  of 
the  forests,  foreseeing  changed  conditions,  exerted  them- 
selves to  the  utmost  and  succeeded  in  girdling  and  felling 
a large  ciiiantity  of  undersized  timber.  As  the  result  of 
his  inspection  the  British  expert  strongly  advised  the 
immediate  formation  of  a State  Forest  Department,  which 
much-needed  step  was  taken  without  undue  delay  and 
in  1896  a staff  of  forest  officers  consisting  for  the  most 
part  of  men  borrowed  from  India  and  Burma,  armed  with 
Royal  decrees  and  acting  under  the  general  orders  of 
H.R.H.  the  Minister  for  the  Interior,  was  set  to  work  in 
Xorthern  Siam  with  headcpiarters  at  Chieiig  Mai.  There 
was  much  to  be  done,  for  not  only  had  the  workings  of 
the  forest  lessees  to  be  constantly  inspected  as  a check 
upon  the  girdling  of  foiffiidden  trees  and  other  commonly 
recurring  infringements  of  lease,  but  the  girdling  and 
felling  of  trees  in  niileased  forests  which,  in  the  absence 
of  control,  had  become  a general  practice,  had  to  be 
stopped  without  delay  and  the  stopping  gave  rise  to  many 
boundary  disputes.  Moreover  much  survey  and  explora- 
tion work  was  necessary  to  place  the  new  Department  in 
possession  of  full  information  as  to  the  nature  and  extent 
of  the  forests  placed  under  its  control.  The  terms  and 
conditions  of  the  leases,  made  by  the  Lao  Cliiefs  when 


356 


SIAM 


they  yet  owned  the  forests,  were  intolerable  to  the  new 
Department  and  negotiations  were  soon  opened  with 
the  lessees,  which  resulted,  in  1897,  in  a considerable 
curtailment  of  their  rights.  Girdling  was  restricted 
from  this  time  on,  and  in  1901  when  the  old  leases  expired 
and,  after  an  immense  deal  of  discussion,  had  been 
partially  renewed,  this  operation  was  altogether  forbidden 
and  the  energies  of  the  timber  companies  w^ere  confined 
to  felling  the  trees  alread}^  girdled,  and  to  extracting 
logs  felled  in  former  years. 

Girdling,  or  the  cutting  of  a deep  ring  round  the  tree 
near  the  base,  the  preliminary  operation  in  the  business 
of  teak  extracting,  is  performed  tw^o  years  before  the 
trees  are  felled,  during  wdiich  time  they  die  and  become 
seasoned  and  this  operation  had  been  carried  on  to  such 
an  extent  under  the  old  conditions  that,  after  it  had  been 
entirely  stopped,  the  number  of  logs  annually  extracted 
from  the  forests  continued  unabated  for  maii}^  years. 
Recently,  liow^eA^er,  owing  to  the  Avorking  out  of  the 
old  timber  and  to  the  issue  of  leases  over  neAv  areas, 
girdling  has  been  resumed  but  is  alloAA^ed  only  under 
strict  su]3ervision  by  the  Forest  Department.  As  noAv 
arranged,  lessees  are  permitted  to  operate  in  one  half 
only  of  the  area  leased,  the  other  half  being  kept  oA^er 
until  the  first  shall  have  been  AA^orked  out.  Many  large 
forests  are  not  leased  at  all  ]3ut,  OAAung  to  the  absence 
of  the  necessary  regulations,  these  are  not  constituted 
forest  reserves  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term  as  under- 
stood in  India.  What  Avitli  the  curtailment  of  leases, 
the  inspection  of  workings  and  the  checking  of  girdling 
and  illegal  felling  of  trees  b,y  persons  not  authorised  to 
extract  timber  at  all,  the  Forest  Department  may  be 
said  to  haA^e  saved  the  teak  industry  of  Siam.  But  it 
has  done  more  than  that,  for  that  same  industry  is  noAv 
yielding  over  a million  and  a half  of  ticals  annually  as 
revenue  of  the  kingdom  and  the  AA'orking  of  the  forests 


INDUSTRIES 


357 


lias  been  so  arranged  that  the  income  to  the  State  from 
teak  shall  remain  more  or  less  constant  for  many  years 
to  come.  Some  clay,  no  doubt,  the  attention  of  the 
Goyernment  will  be  directed  to  the  development  and 
protection  of  the  valuable  forests  of  timber  other  than 
teak  with  which  the  country  is  so  largely  clothed,  but 
that  day  is  not  yet,  and  until  the  forests  of  the  north  cease 
to  maintain  their  anniial  3deld  of  some  hundred  and  twenty 
thousand  teak  logs,  it  is  probable  that  the  less  valuable 
kinds  of  timber  and  other  forest  produce  will  receive 
but  scant  benefit  from  the  Forest  Department,  of  which 
the  establishment  is,  in  fact,  far  too  small  to  deal  with 
the  various  new  ]iroblems  which  would  immediateh" 
confront  it,  were  the  scope  of  its  labours  extended. 

Apart  from  the  w^orkings  of  the  regular  forest  lessees, 
a certain  cpiantit_y  of  teak  is  extracted  b}-  parties  contract- 
ing with  the  Government,  which  either  bu}^s  the  timber 
from  the  contractor  at  a fixed  rate  after  it  has  been  got 
out,  or  divides  it  into  two  ecjual  portions,  one  of  whicli 
accrues  to  either  party  to  the  contract.  Government 
timber  thus  ol^tained  is  sold  at  different  trade  centres 
on  the  river  but  as  this  s^^stem  of  contracts  demands 
the  services  of  a considerable  staff,  less  is  done  in  this 
w^a}^  than  might,  and  should,  be  the  case. 

The  Forest  Department  at  present  consists  of  one 
conservator,  thirteen  dejuity  conservators,  twentAmiine 
assistant  conservators  and  a numlier  of  rangers,  foresters 
and  guards.  The  teak-growing  area  is  divided  into  ten 
districts,  to  the  charge  of  each  of  wliicli  a deputy  con- 
servator is  appointed.  The  conservator  has  his  head- 
quarters in  Bangkok.  During  the  dry  weather,  wlien 
girdling  and  felling  are  proceeding,  the  Department 
has  its  most  active  time,  the  conservator  and  practically 
tlie  Avhole  staff  being  occupied  in  travelling  and  inspect- 
ing the  workings,  exploring  nev'  forest  areas  and  surve,y- 
ing.  For  the  counting  and  measuring  of  logs  and  the 


358 


SIAM 


collection  of  duty,  establishments  are  maintained  at  the 
different  revenue  stations,  the  principal  of  which  is  at 
Pahnampoh,  the  point  where  the  rivers  of  Northern 
Siam  finally  join  to  form  the  Menam  Chao  Phaya. 

The  most  important  lessees  of  the  teak  forests  are  five 
European  firms,  of  which  four  are  British  and  the  remain- 
ing one  -Danish.  The  capital  invested  in  the  industry 
by  these  corporations  is  not  far  short  of  two  millions 
sterling  and  a strong  force  of  employes  is  maintained 
by  each  of  them.  In  all  there  are  some  fifty  Europeans 
at  work  in  the  forests  and  the  number  of  Asiatics  amounts 
to  several  hundreds.  The  lumbermen  are  chiefly  of  the 
Kamuk  tribe,  amongst  whom  this  form  of  labour  has  now 
become  traditional.  Many  elephants  are  used  for  hauling, 
and  consequently  an  elexhiant  is  valuable  property  in 
Northern  Siam,  one  such  animal  representing  an  assured 
income  to  its  owner.  Elephant  stealing  is  a common 
form  of  crime  and  at  times  is  so  frequent  as  seriously 
to  hamper  the  oj^erations  of  the  forest  lessees. 

In  former  days  the  energies  of  the  lessees  were  chiefly 
confined  to  those  forests  Avhich  were  situated  near  to  the 
livers  and,  while  these  vrere  worked  out  as  completely 
as  possible  the  tracts  which,  owing  to  difficulties  of  trans- 
port promised  less  profits,  were  left  practically  untouched. 
The  restrictions  now  imposed  by  the  Government  have, 
however,  caused  attention  to  be  diverted  to  the  more 
distant  ]iarts  and  to  tlie  contrivance  of  means  whereby 
the  cost  of  extraction  may  be  reduced.  The  result  is 
that,  with  hauling  machinery,  rails  and  other  substitutes 
for  elephants,  several  localities  have  recently  been  taken 
up  which  a few  years  ago  were  not  considered  worth 
working. 

Two  years,  or  ratlier  more,  after  a teak  tree  has  been 
girdled  and  thereby  killed,  it  has  (as  already  said)  become 
sufficiently  dry  and  seasoned  to  be  extracted  from  the 
forest.  It  is  then  felled,  roughly  trimmed  into  logs, 


TEAK- LOGGING  IN  SIAM. 
HAULING  HY  MEANS  OE  A TRAMWAY. 


INDUSTRIES 


359 


hauled  to  the  nearest  watercourse,  probably  dry  or 
nearly  so  at  the  time,  and  there  left  until  the  ensuing 
rains  shall  fill  the  stream  and  float  it  out.  In  May  or 
June  the  waters  rise  and  the  logs  come  down,  assisted 
by  the  foresters  through  the  places  irhere  a ‘ jam  ’ might 
occur,  until  they  reach  the  larger  and  more  open  rivers. 
So  long  as  rapids  are  to  be  encountered  the  logs  are 
floated  singly,  but  when  these  have  been  passed  they  are 
fastened  together  into  rafts  of  from  one  to  two  hundred 
logs,  in  which  form  they  make  the  long  journey  down  to 
the  timber  mills  at  Bangkok.  At  various  points  on  the 
river  just  above  the  capital  the  rafts  are  tied  up  until 
required  at  the  mills,  and  at  these  stations,  notably  that 
in  the  bend  of  the  river  at  Pakret,  from  five  to  ten 
thousand  logs  are  often  to  be  seen  at  one  time.  The 
period  which  elapses  between  the  felling  of  a teak  tree 
and  its  arrival  at  the  mills  is  usually  between  three  and 
four  years. 

A comparatively  recent  decree  has  defined  the  purposes 
for  which  teak  timber  may  be  granted  free  of  all  charge.. 
These  are,  for  the  building  of  public  rest-houses,  for 
bridges  constructed  by  private  enterprise  as  charitable 
works  and  for  religious  edifices  of  all  kinds.  The  amount 
of  timber  annually  requisitioned  for  these  purposes  is 
surprisingly  large  and  considering  that  teak  is  one  of 
the  most  durable  of  timbers,  resisting  for  many  years 
the  ravages  of  climate  and  insects,  vdierefore  buildings 
constructed  with  it  do  not  require  to  be  replaced  or  even 
repaired  for  a very  long  time,  the  ultimate  disposal  of 
the  free-granted  timber  remains  something  of  a 
mystery. 

Mines  and  Mining — Gold,  Tin,  and  Gems 

The  mining  industry  in  Siam  is  controlled  l^y  an 
Administrative  Department  inaugurated  by  Royal 


360 


SIAM 


Decree  in  the  year  1890,  the  Head  of  which  takes  his 
instructions  from  the  Minister  for  the  Interior.  During 
its  first  years  the  department  was  fully  occupied  in 
overhauling  the  mass  of  concessions  which  had  been 
made  previously,  in  introducing  the  elements  of  order 
and  system  amongst  them,  and  in  exploring  the  country 
with  a view  to  obtaining  a rough  knowledge  of  the 
mineral  resources  of  the  kingdom.  These  were  found  to 
be  heavy  labours,  for  the  concession  hunter,  unused  to 
any  but  the  most  perfunctory  control,  was  loth  to  lay 
bare  before  the  Government  his  schemes  for  development 
of  his  sometimes  irregularly  acquired  rights,  or  to  fulfil 
with  punctuality  the  easy  conditions  under  which  he 
held  the  same,  while  the  absence  of  information,  the 
want  of  communications  and  the  withholding  (at  first)  of 
assistance  by  the  civil  authorities  and  local  magnates 
made  the  work  of  exploration  one  of  frequent  disappoint- 
ment and  failure.  In  time,  however,  these  difficulties 
were  in  a measure  overcome  and  a Mining  Act  was 
passed  in  1901  substituting  a uniform  system  of  pro- 
specting licenses  and  mining  leases  for  the  old  irregular 
method  of  concession,  and  securing  to  the  Government 
n proper  control  of,  and  interest  in,  all  future  pro- 
positions. 

Gold, — The  tale  of  gold-mining  in  Siam  is  interesting 
and  romantic.  It  is  a peculiarity  of  gold  that  beyond 
all  other  minerals  the  mere  report  of  its  presence  is  apt 
to  fire  the  imagination,  not  only  of  the  professional 
miner,  but  the  ignorant  layman,  and  to  this  quality  is 
due  the  fact  that  such  reports,  backed  by  the  exliibition 
of  s])ecimens  of  the  metal  itself,  have  led  all  sorts  and 
conditions  of  men  in  Siam  to  the  indulgence  of  dreams 
of  wealth,  followed  by  many  efforts  to  realise  the  same. 
i\ow  the  wide,  though  very  thin,  dissemination  of  gold 
throughout  the  country  has  naturally  been  the  cause  of 
continual  rumoui's  of  the  possible  existence  of  vast 


INDUSTRIES 


361 


wealth,  first  in  one,  then  in  another,  unexplored  quarter, 
with  the  result  that  at  one  time  it  was  rather  the  rule 
than  the  exception  for  Europeans  connected  with  the 
conntr}"  as  well  as  most  Siamese  of  wealth  to  hold,  or  he 
interested  in,  some  gold-mining  concession  or  other. 
The  majority  of  these  persons  spent  their  own  money  in 
prospecting  and  developing  their  property,  invariably 
met  with  complete  disappointment  and,  having  burnt 
their  fingers,  returned  to  less  inspiring  but  more  profit- 
able avocations  ; but  a more  astute  minority,  passing  on, 
not  Avithont  further  embroidery,  the  tales  AAdiicli  had 
first  caught  their  fancy,  entangled  the  public  in  the 
matter  and  Avith  the  lieaAw  money  of  excited  speculators 
in  their  pockets,  stood  aside  and  aAA^aited  Avith  calm,  the 
almost  ineAutable  collapse  of  the  undertaking.  Thus 
came  into  existence  the  AYattana,  the  Kabin,  the  Bang- 
tapan,  the  Tomoh  and  many  other  gold  mining 
companies  each  of  Avhich,  after  an  opening  flourish  and 
the  expenditure  of  much  capital,  droojAed  and  declined 
through  A^arious  stages  of  liquidation  and  reconstruction 
to  ultimate  extinction.  Places,  the  names  of  AAdiicli  once 
Avere  heard  upon  the  Paris  Bourse  and  the  London  Stock 
Exchange,  are  uoav  forgotten  Avilds  of  jungle,  Avhere 
perhaps  a feAv  stolid  Chinamen  AAxash  a little  gold  for  a 
scanty  living,  and  Avhere  only  rotting  machinery,  trans- 
ported there  from  far  distant  countries  at  A^ast  expense, 
recalls  the  hopes  tliat  once  centred  round  them. 

Tin. — By  far  the  most  important  mining  industry  of 
Siam  is  the  extraction  of  tinstone  from  tlie  alluAdal 
deposits  and  lodes  AAdiich  alAound  in  Southern  Siam,  as 
in  the  more  southerly  parts  of  the  Malay  Peninsula. 
The  Siamese,  hoAvever,  averse  from  all  forms  of  labour 
other  than  agricultural,  take  little  part  in  the  industry 
AA'liich  is,  or  Avas  until  the  recent  appearance  of  European 
enterprise,  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  Chinese. 
The  Chinese  in  fact,  draAvn  thither  by  the  mines,  early 


362 


SIAM 


established  colonies  throughout  the  tin-bearing  provinces 
and  now  form  no  inconsiderable  part  of  the  population 
of  those  parts.  Many  large  fortunes  were  made  by 
individuals  amongst  the  settlers  and,  in  one  instance  at 
least,  a family  was  founded,  the  scions  of  which,  having 
in  troublous  times  acquired  control  of  an  entire  pro- 
vince, achieved  a position  of  practically  independent 
sovereignty  and  presented  the  curious  spectacle  of 
Chinese  Chiefs  or  Rajas  ruling  over  a mixed  population 
of  Siamese  and  Malays.  Until  comparative!}^  recently, 
the  kings  of  Siam  exercised  little  more  than  a nominal 
control  over  the  tin-producing  provinces  and  though 
the  mines  were  tolerated  because  of  the  revenues  which 
they  contributed  to  the  Bangkok  Treasuiy,  small  assist- 
ance was  given  either  in  development  of  the  mines  or  in 
the  preservation  of  law  and  order  in  the  districts  where 
they  existed.  Consequent!}^,  while  the  tin-bearing  areas 
in  the  British-protected  Malay  States  were  being  actively 
developed  and  were  arousing  a world-wide  interest,  those 
of  Siam  attracted  little  or  no  attention  and  were  left  in 
unchallenged  possession  of  the  Chinese  miners  who 
continued  to  work  them  by  the  primitive  methods  of 
their  forefathers.  Some  ten  years  ago,  however,  the 
Government  turned  its  attention  seriously  to  the  problem 
of  administering  these  distant  but  wealthy  provinces, 
and  with  the  establishment  of  a branch  office  of  the 
Mining  Department  at  Puket  and  the  inauguration  of  a 
scheme  of  Public  Works,  the  prospects  of  tin-mining 
began  immerliately  to  improve.  Active  prospecting 
work  was  undertaken,  which  revealed  the  presence  of 
enormous  supplies  of  ore  hitherto  quite  unknown. 
European  mining  men  were  attracted  to  the  neighbour- 
hood and,  under  the  terms  of  the  Mining  Act,  several 
new  mines  were  opened  up  in  accordance  with  up-to-date 
methods  and  with  modern  machinery.  The  industry, 
which  in  1895  was  stationary  or  slightly  declining,  took 


AN  OPEN  (ok  “ I'ADDOCIv  ”)  TIX-MIXE  IX  PUKET, 


y 


I-  ■ 


' 


1 


i 


INDUSTRIES 


363 


a turn  for  the  better  and  the  annual  output,  then  some 
3600  tons,  is  at  present  over  5000  tons.  This,  however, 
is  but  the  beginning  of  the  development.  Great 
quantities  of  known  ore  yet  remain  untouched  while 
vast  stretches  of  country  have  never  yet  been  prospected, 
and  there  can  scarcely  be  a doubt  but  that  in  a few 
years’  time  the  present  annual  production  of  Siamese 
tin  will  be  much  increased. 

Apart  from  the  lode-mining,  dredging  and  hydraulic- 
ing,  which  have  been  undertaken  by  European  com- 
panies, the  old  Chinese  system  of  mining  by  open-cast 
workings,  more  like  quarrying  than  mining,  is  almost 
universal.  At  many  points  in  the  Western  Provinces, 
the  remains  of  A^ery  ancient  shaft-mines  exist  bnt  these 
are  supposed  to  be  A^estiges  of  pre-Chinese  colonists 
from  India  and  the  only  modern  shaft  Avorkings  con- 
trolled by  Asiatics  are  those  of  a foAv  Macao  Chinese 
Avho  have  learnt  the  method  in  Australia.  The  alluAual 
mines,  locally  called  Mueng  Sa,  are  of  all  sizes,  some  of 
the  Avorkings  being  mere  pits  AAdiiie  others  are  great 
trenches  thirty  or  forty  feet  deep,  many  yards  AAude,  as 
much  as  500  yards  long  and  employing  a thousand 
men.  The  depth  of  the  mine  depends  upon  the  thick- 
ness of  the  OA^erburden  AAdiich  has  to  be  removed  before 
the  tin-bearing  stratum  or  ‘ karang  ’ is  reached.  This, 
when  laid  bare,  is  simply  shoA^elled  into  baskets  by  the 
miners  and  carried  up  a long  inclined  plank-Avay  to 
the  sluices.  Puddling  machinery  is  being  gradually 
introduced  l)ut  the  usual  method  is  to  heaA^e  the 
‘ karang  ’ straight  into  sluices  a hundred  yards  long 
where,  as  it  is  carried  doAvn  by  a stream  of  Avater,  it  is 
subjected  to  a continuous  raking,  the  lieaA^y  tinstone 
I'emaining  l^ehind  and  the  mud  and  sand  passing  on 
and  out  onto  the  tailings. 

A large  proportion  of  tin  ore  is  not  lioAveA^er  alluvial 
at  all  bnt  is  found  on  the  hillsides  in  the  more  or  less 


364 


SIAM 


decomposed  granite.  This  is  worked  by  the  process 
known  as  Mueng  Slaan  which  consists  in  laying  bare 
the  tin-carrying  rock  by  open-cast  working  and  then 
causing  water  to  flow  over  it,  carrying  it  down  and 
through  a series  of  sluices  arranged  below.  Consider- 
able ingenuity  is  displayed  in  conveying  the  water 
supply  to  the  top  of  the  cuttings  ; water  courses  are 
carried  from  great  distances  round  the  shoulders  of  the 
hills,  through  projecting  spurs  and  over  deep  gullies, 
the  last  by  means  of  fragile-looking  wooden  aqueducts, 
supported  on  a maze  of  bamboo  scaffolding,  sometimes 
more  than  seventy  feet  high.  As  the  water  pours  over 
the  face  of  the  cutting  the  miners  loosen  the  rocks 
with  iron  pikes  and  assist  the  stream  in  carrying  it 
down.  The  dressed  ore  is  smelted  on  the  spot  or  at 
the  nearest  village,  in  small  earthern  blast-furnaces 
bound  round  with  iron,  whence  the  tin  is  run  off  into 
pigs  of  about  90  lbs  weight,  in  which  condition  it  is 
exported.  The  fuel  used  is  charcoal,  the  preparation 
of  which  from  wood  felled  in  the  surrounding  jungle, 
itself  forms  a considerable  industry  and  one  which,  for 
want  of  supervision,  has  denuded  the  forests  of  much 
valuable  timber.  Lately  a Singapore  Smelting  Company 
has  established  an  ore-buying  agency  at  Puket  under 
European  management,  by  which  a good  many  local 
furnaces  have  been  thrown  out  of  work.  The  value  of 
the  annual  tin  ])roduction  of  Siam  is  about  £700,000. 
The  Government  reA^enue  is  secured  by  a royalt}^,  fixed 
from  time  to  time  according  to  a sliding  scale  based 
u])on  market  juvices,  and  amounting  roughly  to  about 
ten  ]>er  cent  of  the  gross  Aaalue. 

Gems. — The  gems  of  the  Chantabui’i  district  liaA-e 
been  knoAvn  for  many  centuries.  l)e  La  Loubere, 
Acriting  in  1714  a.d.,  mentions  sappliires  as  one  of  the 
]U'oducts  of  Siam  and  adds  that  the  gems  Avere  usually 
found  in  the  possession  of  monks  who  AA^ere  A^ery 


INDUSTRIES 


365 


secretive  as  to  wlience  they  were  obtained,  and  em- 
ployed them  as  charms,  their  value  as  jewels  not  being 
fully  appreciated  in  the  absence  of  persons  able  to  cut 
and  polish  them.  It  is  recorded  in  Finlayson’s  Journal 
and  by  Crawfiird  that  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century  the  gem  mines  were  being  worked  in  a small 
way  and  as  a royal  monopoly  but  that  the  stones  recovered 
ivere  of  a poor  quality.  Some  time  about  the  middle  of 
last  century  the  mines  became  known  to  certain  Shan 
and  Burmese  traders  who  visited  the  locality  and,  with 
experience  gained  in  the  gem  mines  of  Burma,  soon 
demonstrated  that  the  Chantabuii  gravels  were  a good 
deal  more  valuable  than  had  hitherto  been  supposed. 
Stones  which  they  procured  there  found  their  way  to 
Burma  and  attracted  many  experienced  miners  to  the 
spot.  The  spirit  of  gambling  which  has  always  per- 
vaded the  ruby  mines  of  Burma  spread  to  Chantaburi 
and  Burmese  and  Shan  speculators  leased  the  mines 
from  the  Government  and  brought  over  their  own  men 
to  work  them.  One  after  another  they  failed,  howcA^er, 
until  in  1880  a financial  genius  rose  amongst  them  aaOio, 
gathering  all  the  mines  into  his  hands  and  gaining 
control  of  the  opium,  gambling  and  other  monopolies  of 
the  district,  conducted  business  at  a profit  for  many 
years.  This  person  induced  some  thousands  of  his 
felloAv  countrymen  to  join  him  and  a considerable 
colony  greiv  up,  Avhere  the  customs  and  ivays  of  life 
peculiar  to  the  Shans  Avere  reproduced  in  eA^ery  detail 
and  Avhere  he  ruled  in  almost  complete  indejiendence 
for  many  years.  His  colony  increased  and  the  gems 
from  his  mines,  more  especially  sapphires,  apjieared  not 
only  in  Siam  and  Burma  but  in  the  Calcutta  market. 
In  1895,  lioAveA'er,  the  GoA^ernment  made  a concession 
of  the  district  to  a British  company,  the  Shan  lessee, 
shorn  of  many  of  his  priAuleges,  soon  fell  into  embarrassed 
circumstances,  the  output  of  the  mines  declined,  and 


366 


SIAM 


the  population  began  to  decrease.  Since  that  time  the 
property  has  changed  hands  frequently.  Company 
after  company  has  tried  to  carry  it  on  and,  though  all 
sorts  of  efforts  have  been  made  to  restore  its  former 
prosperity,  all  have  been  fruitless  and  gem-mining  in 
Siam  is  to-day  a declining  industry.  There  is  much 
speculating  in  claims,  a single  pit  often  changing  hands 
many  times  before  any  attempt  is  made  to  work  it. 
The  brisk  working  season  is  during  the  rains  Avhen 
water  is  available  everywhere  with  which  to  work  the 
gravel.  At  other  seasons,  many  of  the  diggings  are 
quite  dry  and  the  gravel  has  to  be  carted  to  the  nearest 
river  for  examination. 

No  Government  statistics  of  the  produce  of  the  gem 
mines  have  ever  been-  compiled  but  it  is  estimated  that 
the  present  annual  outturn,  including  garnets,  topazes, 
spinelles,  and  zircons  as  well  as  sapphires  and  rubies, 
amounts  to  about  £35,000  in  value.  The  most  valuable 
gems  produced  are  sapphires,  the  rubies  being  usually 
of  poor  colour  and  full  of  flaws.  Mining  at  all  the 
different  diggings  is  carried  on  by  means  of  pits  a few 
feet  wide  and  reaching  down  to  twelve  feet  below  the 
surface.  By  recent  adjustment  of  frontiers  a large 
part  of  the  Chantaburi  gem-bearing  area  has  become 
French  protected  territory. 

The  above-noted  gold,  tin  and  gem  workings  constitute 
the  only  mining  enterprise  of  any  importance  in  Siam. 
SiNer,  iron,  lead,  copiier  and  coal  have  been  referred  to 
in  Part  I (Geology  and  Minerals)  as  existing  in  different 
parts  of  the  country  and  as  having  at  one  time  and 
another,  been  mined  with  more  or  less,  usually  less, 
success,  but  operations  with  regard  to  those  minerals 
are  at  the  lu’esent  time  so  minute  as  to  call  for  no  special 
mention  here. 


INDUSTRIES 

Other  Industries 


367 


Rice-m  illing. — The  only  Siamese  industry  which  can 
he  called  a mannfactnre  is  rice-milling.  The  first  steam 
rice-mill  on  the  hanks  of  the  Menam  Chao  Phaya  was 
hnilt  at  Bangkok  in  1855,  the  original  engines,  long 
since  replaced  hy  more  modern  machinery,  heing  still 
carefully  preserved  hy  the  present  Chinese  owner  as 
the  ‘ Good  Joss  ’ which  hronght  fortune  to  his  grand- 
father. The  nnmher  of  mills  now  running  is  over  sixty 
and  more  are  continually  heing  hnilt.  The  industry 
has  within  recent  years  extended  to  the  provincial  towns, 
and  mills  have  l^eeii  opened  at  Tanyahnri,  Petriu, 
Tachin,  Lakon  (Xakhon  Sri  Thamniarat),  Singora  and 
Aynthia.  The  owners  of  the  mills  are  of  Siamese  and  of 
various  other  nationalities,  Chinese  largely  predominat- 
ing ; the  employes  are  Chinese,  with  European 
(usually  Scotch)  engineers  in  general  charge  of  the 
technical  work.  Every  mill  is  hnilt  on  the  edge  of  a 
river  or  canal  and  has  a wharf  to  which  the  paddy  is 
hronght  in  boats  to  he  milled.  When  comj)etition  is 
keen  in  Bangkok  the  mills  send  huyers  out  far  up  all 
the  waterways  to  intercejk  and  hargain  for  the  paddy 
before  it  reaches  the  town,  and  a continual  war  is  carried 
on  between  the  huyers  and  sellers,  the  former  trying  to 
keep  prices  down  and  the  latter  struggling  to  force  them 
up.  The  sellers  must  liai-e  mone}^  and  the  millers  must 
have  grist  and  the  fight  resolves  itself  every  year  into 
a trial  as  to  which  can  hold  out  the  longer.  Efforts  are 
frequently  made  hy  the  millers  to  form  a ring  for  the 
purpose  of  keeping  prices  down  l^ut,  owing  to  lack  of 
cohesion  amongst  the  various  nationalities  concerned, 
the  attempt  has  never  been  more  than  partially  success- 
ful while  similar  compacts  made  amongst  sellers  to  force 
prices  up,  usually  fail  also  to  liaA^e  more  than  a very 
temporary  effect,  in  consequence  of  internecine  rivalry. 


368 


SIAM 


The  Government  has  more  than  once  threatened  to 
intervene  on  behalf  of  the  sellers  and,  by  postponing 
revenue  collection  and  in  other  ways  to  enable  them  to 
withhold  supplies,  but  snch  assistance  has  never  become 
actually  necessary  and  many  years’  experience  shows 
that  the  sellers  are  very  well  able  to  look  after  their  own 
interests.  The  signal  defeat  vdiicli  a combination  of 
local  circumstances  has  enabled  the  millers  of  Rangoon 
to  inflict  repeatedly  on  the  rice-growers  of  Burma,  has 
never  been  experienced  in  Siam.  On  arrival  at  the  mill 
wharf  the  paddy  is  taken  from  the  boats,  carefully 
measured  and  carried  by  mannal  labour  into  the  mill 
storehouse.  "Thence  it  is  transferred  into  the  mill  and 
when  it  reappears  in  the  form  of  rice,  is  packed  in 
sacks  and  returned  • to  the  'wharf,  again  by  mannal 
labour.  The  paddy  is  brought  by  the  ‘ Ivwien,’  literally 
‘ cart-load,  ’ a measure  containing  eighty  baskets,  each  of 
Vvdiich  holds  about  42  lbs  of  grain. 

A considerable  portion  of  the  rice  mannfactnred  is  of 
the  Cjiiality  known  as  ‘ cargo  rice  ’ or  grain  only 
partially  milled  with  a thin-colonred  pellicnle  of  nitro- 
genous composition  adhering  closely  to  it  and  wdth 
a good  deal  of  the  husk  still  present.  The  remainder 
is  ‘ wdiite  rice,’  milled  until  the  nitrogenous  pellicnle  is 
entirely  removed  and  only  the  white  starchy  interior 
])art  of  the  grain  left.  With  improvements  in  machinery 
the  quantity  of  ‘ cargo  rice  ’ made  is  diminishing  while 
tiiat  of  ‘white  rice’  is  increasing.  "The  milled  rice  is 
sold  by  the  ‘ Koyan,’  probably  a corruption  of  ‘ Kwden,’ 
which  equals  22  piculs  or  2933  lbs  of  cargo  rice  and 
23  ]:>icnls  or  3069  lbs  of  white  rice.  The  high  polish 
noticeable  on  the  rice  used  for  food  in  Europe  is  not 
put  on  in  the  mills  of  Siam  ]3ut  is  obtained  by  further 
milling  after  arrival  of  the  grain  in  Europe  from  abroad. 
The  carriage  of  the  grain  to  and  from  the  mills  by  hand 
is  no  doubt  an  expensive  process  but  it  is  a form  of 


INDUSTRIES 


369 


labour  rendered  sacred  by  usage  and  tlie  miller  wlio 
should  have  the  temerity  to  replace  the  Chinese  coolies 
who  perform  this  work  by  steam  power  would  have  to 
face  combined  opposition  and  probable  boycotting. 
The  rice  mills,  which  are  all  built  of  timber  and 
galvanised  iron,  are  very  high.  Tlie  grain  is  hoisted 
up  to  the  top,  is  there  fed  into  the  milling  machinery 
through  which  it  passes  and,  descending  by  its  own 
weight,  ultimately  returns  to  the  ground  floor  in  the 
form  of  rice,  having  in  its  downward  passage  been 
husked,  winnowed,  and  ground  clean.  The  old-fashioned 
millstones  have  been  replaced  by  pairs  of  cast-iron  discs 
about  five  feet  in  diameter,  covered  on  the  opposing 
faces  with  a mixture  of  corundum  (emery)  and  cement, 
the  upper  disc  fixed  and  the  lower  revolving  rapidly. 
These  remove  tlie  husk  from  the  grain.  Ingenious 
processes  of  shaking  and  fanning  then  separate  the 
husk  from  the  rice  and  divide  the  whole  grains  from  the 
broken.  Finall}-  the  rice  is  passed  between  a rapidly 
revolving  cone,  faced,  like  the  husking  discs,  Avitli 
corundum  and  cement,  and  a more  or  less  close-fitting 
stationary  Avire  casing,  by  the  action  of  AAdiich  machine 
the  outer  pellicule  is  rubbed  off  the  grain  and  the  Avhite 
rice  of  commerce  produced.  The  fine  particles  removed 
from  the  grain  in  this  last  operation  form  the  valuable 
by-product  knoAvn  as  rice-meal. 

Boat-building  as  an  industry  has  declined  since  the 
early  days  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  the  great 
junks  employed  in  the  China  trade  and  the  sailing 
A^essels  of  the  king  and  other  Siamese  merchants  were 
built  on  the  banks  of  the  Men  am  Cliao  Phaya,  but  a 
large  number  of  river-lioats  and  sea  fishing  boats  are 
still  annually  launched  at  Bangkok  and  at  many  of  the 
inland  riverine  towns,  wliile,  recently,  steam  launches 
and  sea-going  Avooden  steamers  liaA^e  been  built  in 
Bangkok.  Doaaui  the  AA^estern  sliore  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam, 
2 a 


870 


SIAM 


less  than  a century  ago,  the  rivers  of  the  Malay  de- 
pendencies were  veritable  nests  of  pirates,  who  were 
exceedingly  proficient  in  the  art  of  building  fast-sailing 
ohipB  and  great  sea-going  canoes  in  which  to  pursue 
their  nefarious  business.  These  pirating  days  passed 
away  long  since  and  the  descendants  of  the  rovers,  still 
partial  to  a sea  life,  have  become  law-abiding  sailormen 
and  fishermen,  employing  the  shipbuilding  skill  of 
their  race  in  fashioning  trading  schooners  and  fishing 
boats.  Steam  traffic  has  now  taken  most  of  the  coast 
trade  but  fine  ships  are  still  occasionally  built,  while 
the  fishing  boats  constructed  by  this  primitive  people 
are  of  a grace,  speed  and  sea-worthiness  difficult  to 
surpass. 

The  foundation  of  all  Siamese-built  river  boats,  and 
of  most  of  the  smaller  sea-going  craft,  is  the  dug-out  or 
hollowed  trunk  of  a tree  which  in  small  canoes  forms  the 
entire  vessel  and  in  large  boats  is  the  keel  and  bottom 
upon  wliich  tlie  rest  of  the  structure  is  super-imposed. 
By  tliis  arrangement  a vessel  is  secured  which  never 
leaks  however  often  it  may  strike  against  snags  or  rocks, 
which,  Avith  its  broad,  round  bottom,  is  quick  to  turn  in 
narrow  waterways,  is  of  shallow  draft  and  Avhen  grounded 
is  easy  to  x)ush  over  a muddy  bottom,  a vessel,  in  fact, 
admirably  adapted  to  the  purposes  for  Avhich  it  is 
required.  The  timbers  used  for  boat  building  are  the 
tliingan  and  mai  tahhien  for  dug-outs,  and  teak  or  mai 
tahhien  for  superstructure.  Probably  the  largest  dug- 
outs  in  the  w^orld  are  the  Siamese  royal  state  barges. 
These  are  of  tliingan  wood  and  each  boat  consists  of  a 
single  tree.  They  are  150  feet  or  rather  more  in  length 
and  al)out  eleven  feet  beam  and  are  made  in  exactly  the 
same  Avay  as  the  smallest  canoe,  the  tree  being  hollowed 
out  Avith  adzes,  submerged  in  Avater  until  thoroughly 
soaked  and  then  opened  out  over  fire.  The  symmetry 
of  these  Royal  barges,  AAdiich  are  Avithout  superstructure 


ROYAL  LARGE  IX  SIAM.  IPhoto Antonio. 


\ 


5 


J 


INDUSTRIES 


371 


of  any  kind  bnt  are  sini])ly  one  piece  of  timber,  is  quite 
perfect.  In  ordinaiy  boat-bnilding  no  metal  nails  are 
ever  used,  tlie  planks  wlncli  form  the  snperstrnctnre 
being  fastened  to  the  ribs  by  means  of  strong  wooden 
pegs  or  treenails  of  viai  talxhien.  A well-bnilt  boat  of 
this  construction  requires  no  repair  for  twenty  years  or 
more,  beyond  a little  occasional  caulking,  bnt  the  same 
cannot  be  said  for  the  large  numbers  of  boats  which  are 
now  built  in  Siam  on  European  lines.  The  best  of  these 
latter  are  short-lived  in  comparison  with  those  built 
according  to  native  models,  their  thin  planking  being 
ill  adapted  to  the  extremes  of  climate  and  rough  usage  to 
which  they  are  subjected.  A good  deal  of  amateur  boat 
building  is  done  in  the  monasteries,  the  monks  in  their 
leisure  hours  producing  some  of  the  very  best  of  the 
smaller  river  craft. 

Pottery. — It  is  probable  that  the  making  of  pottery  is 
one  of  the  very  oldest  arts  practised  in  Siam,  for  though 
no  pottery  which  can  with  any  assurance  be  placed 
earlier  than  fifteen  hundred  years  ago  has  actually  been 
found  in  the  country,  the  recent  discovery  in  Kambodia 
of  primitive  earthenware  pots  and  other  articles  together 
with  later  neolithic  celts,  leads  to  the  inference  that  the 
early  races  which  impartially  inhabited  both  countries 
were  possessed  of  at  least  a rudimentary  knowledge  of 
the  properties  and  uses  of  burnt  clay.  Amongst  the 
ruins  of  many  of  the  cities  of  the  north,  terra-cotta  jars, 
pots,  statuettes,  pedestals,  etc.,  are  commonly  found, 
executed  in  a rude  bnt  forceful  style  and  probably  dating 
back  to  about  the  seventh  century  a.d. 

In  the  days  of  Sukhothai-Sawankalok’s  prosperity  the 
art  of  making  porcelain  was  introduced  into  that  king- 
dom from  China,  and  Chinese  ex])erts  were  induced,  l)y 
King  Arunawati  Ruang,  it  is  said,  to  settle  at  the  capital 
and  to  ply  their  handicraft  there.  Porcelain  kilns  were 
established  on  the  bank  of  the  river  a few  miles  above 


372 


SIAM 


Sawankalok  city,  and  the  industry  apparently  persisted 
there  for  some  six  or  seven  centuries,  that  is  down  to 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  a.d.  Owing  to  the 
absence  of  suitable  clay  the  quality  of  the  porcelain  Avas 
never  good  and  though  the  AvorkmanshijA  and  the  glazing 
were  at  first  of  superior  quality,  the  industry  Avoiild  seem 
to  have  declined  into  the  manufacture  of  coarse  and 
rough  crockery  only,  some  time  before  the  Burmese 
conquest  put  an  end  to  it  altogether. 

TJie  sites  of  the  ancient  kilns  are  marked  by  huge 
heaps  of  shards  and  misshapen  or  illl^urnt  pottery,  the 
refuse  thrown  out  of  the  kilns  and  discarded  by  many 
generations  of  potters  and,  though  the  quantity  of  finished 
SaAvankalok  AAmre  as  now  to  be  found  in  different  parts  of 
the  country,  is  surprisingly  small,  it  is  clear  from  the  size 
and  number  of  these  heaps  that  a great  deal  of  the  ware 
must  have  been  manufactured  from  time  to  time.  It  is 
even  possible  that  it  AA^as  exj^orted,  and  that  the  ancient 
jars  found  amongst  the  Dayaks  of  Borneo  and  held  in  so 
much  esteem  by  them  at  the  present  day  Avere  made  at 
Sawankalok  for,  though  it  is  generally  held  that  these 
come  from  China,  the  fact  that  they  are  called  ‘ Siamese 
Jars  ’ by  the  Dayaks  themselves  seems  to  point  to  a 
Siamese  origin.  Gerini  further  maintains,  and  indeed 
goes  far  towards  ])roving,  that  the  coarser  pieces  of  the 
celadon  Avare  knoAvn  as  ‘ Martaban  ’ throughout  the 
Mohammedan  Orient  Averemade  at  SaAvankalok,  and  were 
exported  from  the  toAAuis  on  the  West  Coast  of  Further 
India  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Moulmein  or  Martaban. 
The  older  SaAAmnkalok  AA^ares  Avere  almost  ahvays  of  a 
uniform  dirty  Avliite,  pale  grey  blue,  or  yelloAV,  and  AA^ere 
frequently  ‘ crackled.’  Later,  it  seems  probable  that 
polychrome  became  fashionable  and  that  floral  and 
religious  designs  AA^ere  Avorked  out  in  many  colours  on 
the  better  class  productions.  But  by  the  time  this  stage 
had  been  reached  the  industry  had  fallen  into  decay,  and 


SIAMESE  PORCELAIN, 


1 


I 


INDUSTRIES 


373 


the  imitative  Chinese  had  hegiiii  to  supply  a better 
article  from  China,  decorated  for  the  Siamese  market 
with  all  the  coloured  designs  most  in  demand,  or  brought 
over  jhain  and  afterwards  painted  by  Siamese  craftsmen. 
Subsequent  to  the  Burmese  conquest  these  imitations 
altogether  replaced  the  genuine  wares  and  nearly,  if  not 
quite,  all  the  coloured  porcelain,  now  sold  to  collectors 
as  ancient  Siamese  ware,  is  undoubtedly  of  Chinese 
manufacture  and  is  Siamese  only  in  design. 

The  only  branch  of  the  pottery  industry  now  practised 
in  Siam  is  the  manufacture  of  earthenware  pots,  pans 
and  jars,  some  of  which  are  roughly  enamelled,  while 
most  are  plain  terra-cotta.  Large  red  porous  jars  of 
some  20  gallons  ca])acity  are  made  in  considerable 
quantity  and  are  exported  to  neighliouring  countries, 
where  they  are  known  as  ‘ Siam  Jars,’  a very  different 
article  from  the  ‘ Siamese  Jars’  of  the  Dayaks  of  Borneo. 
The  beautiful  blue,  3’ellow  and  red  glazed  tiles  used  for 
the  roofs  of  Wats  and  royal  buildings  are  still  made  in 
different  parts  of  the  country,  but  here  again  Chinese 
imitations  are  supplanting  the  genuine  article.  Terra- 
cotta charcoal-stoves,  porous  water-goglets  and  pots  of  a 
great  variety  of  shape  and  of  many  degrees  of  fineness 
are  made  to  supply  local  demands.  Mention  should 
also  be  made  of  the  very  elegant  earthenw-are  tea]iots  on 
which  the  Siamese  set  great  store.  These  are  imported 
from  Cdiina  in  a rough  and  unfinished  condition,  and 
are  fitted  in  Siam  with  brass  handles  and  rims,  and 
polished  by  a peculiar  secret  process  until  the  terra- 
cotta is  absolutely  smooth  and  shining  with  a high 
lustre.  The  finished  article  commands  a good  price 
and  old  teapots  of  this  kind  are  often  considered  of 
more  value  than  if  made  of  silver. 

Silk. — The  production  of  raw  silk  is  a very  old 
industry  in  Siam,  while  silk-weaving  has  been  considered 
a polite  occupation  for  female  leisure  from  the  remotest 


374 


SIAM 


times,  the  old  chronicles  and  stories  abounding  with 
allusions  to  the  use  of  the  loom  by  ladies,  even  of  the 
highest  rank.  Weaving  is  still  an  almost  universal 
employment  for  women  but  in  the  absence  of  scientific 
knowledge,  Siamese  silk-growers  have  fallen  behind  their 
foreign  competitors  and  a large  part  of  the  silk  now 
locally  woven  is  imported  from  China,  Japan  and  else- 
where. A good  deal  of  native  silk  is  however  still  used, 
a small  quantity  finds  a market  abroad,  and  the  silk- 
growing industry  though  in  a poor  way  is  by  no  means 
dead  or  dying.  Indeed  the  attention  which  the  Govern- 
ment has  recently  given  to  this  industry  has  revealed 
signs  that  its  vitality  is  strong  and  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  with  care  and  encouragement  Siamese  silk 
may  yet  rank  with  the  best.  The  investigations  of 
sericultural  experts,  engaged  by  the  Government  from 
Japan  some  eight  years  ago,  have  shown  that  the  silk- 
worm of  Siam  is  naturally  robust  and  a good  silk 
producer  and  a series  of  experiments  have  proved  beyond 
doubt  that  the  quality  of  the  product  can  be  immensely 
improved  by  a little  care  in  rearing  the  worms  and  in 
reeling.  By  the  instalment  of  a laboratory  and  an 
experimental  station  and  school  at  Korat,  one  of  the 
centres  of  the  silk-growing  industry,  something  has  been 
done  to  instruct  growers  in  means  of  improving  the 
quality  and  increasing  the  out-turn  of  raw  silk  by  the 
prevention  of  disease,  regular  feeding,  better  accommoda- 
tion and  by  attention  to  other  elementary  but  hitherto 
sadly  neglected  matters.  Such  instructions,  however, 
have  not  yet  borne  fruit,  for  the  silk  annually  exported 
from  Bangkok  still  continues  insignificant  both  in 
quality  and  quantit}^ 

- Situated  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
Menam  Chao  ITiaya  at  Bangkok,  are  many  saw-mills 
where  the  teak  which  comes  down  from  the  north,  and 
also  a certain  amount  of  other  timber  obtained  in  various 


INDUSTRIES 


375 


parts  of  the  country,  is  cut  up  and  j)repared  for  export 
or  for  local  consumption.  The  majority  of  the  mills  are 
small  and  are  equipped  with  primitive  machinery  hut 
nine  of  them,  of  which  four  are  owned  hy  British,  one 
by  Danish,  one  by  French  and  three  by  Chinese  firms, 
are  large,  well-found  establishments  furnished  with 
highly  efficient  steam-driven  machinery  and  capable  of 
turning  out  a large  amount  of  work,  ddiese  are  all 
under  the  supervision  of  European  engineers  and  employ 
upwards  of  1000  persons  of  Siamese,  Burmese  and 
Chinese  nationality.  The  mills  are  chiefly  occupied  in 
converting  round  teak  logs  into  squared  timber  for 
export,  but  a good  deal  of  plank  and  scantling  cutting 
is  also  done.  The  arrangement  of  the  mills  is  that  of 
timber  mills  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  They  are 
fitted  with  over-head  travelling  cranes  by  which  the  logs 
are  taken  up  and  carried  to  the  circular-saw  racks. 
Sawdust  and  refuse  timber  constitute  the  fuel  on  which 
the  steam  generating  furnaces  are  fed.  About  100,000 
tons  of  timber  pass  through  the  mills  annually,  of  which 
about  85,000  tons  are  exported  and  some  15,000  tons 
consumed  locally. 

PART  IV  {Continued) 

COMVERCT^]  AND  TRADE 

Ancient  Commerce.  ~I\i  very  early  times,  long  before 
any  ICuropean  had  ever  set  foot  in  Siam,  in  fact  at  a 
period  when  the  European  was  an  iron-encased  semi- 
savage, too  much  absorbed  in  knocking  out  the  brains 
of  his  neighbours  and  in  keei^ing  his  own  skull  uncracked 
to  bother  about  trade  or  foreign  travel,  this  country  had 
already  a Avell-established  commerce  with  the  countries 
contiguous  to  her  frontiers  and  was  in  trade  relations 
with  China  and  with  India.  According  to  old  records. 
Southern  Siam  at)pears  to  have  been  the  main  ])oint  of 


876 


SIAM 


attraction  for  tlie  earliest  foreign  traders,  for  while  ships 
from  the  Indian  Coast  regularly  visited  'Junk  Ceylon’ 
and  other  parts,  carrying  thence  tin,  gold  and  spices  ; a 
fleet  of  Chinese  junks  annually  called  at  various  ports 
and  settlements  on  the  east  side  of  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
many  of  which  exist  no  longer  except  as  names  in  ancient 
chronicles.  Later,  when  Ayuthia  rose  to  fame,  the 
Indian  merchants  established  an  overland  route  from 
their  west  side  ports  of  call  to  the  capital  while  the 
junks,  extending  their  beat  further  to  the  northward, 
ascended  the  Menam  Chao  Phaya  to  do  business  at  the 
capital. 

Early  European  Traders. — When,  early  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  the  Portuguese  filibustering  merchants 
first  visited  the  countiy,  the}^  found  at  all  the  ports  as 
well  as  at  the  capital,  long-settled  communities  of  Indian 
and  Chinese  merchants  engaged  in  a profitable  trade. 
They  lost  no  time  in  entering  into  competition  with 
these  and  so  rapid  was  their  advance  that  in  twenty 
years’  time  the  factory  or  trading  settlement,  which  they 
founded  at  Patani  in  1516,  contained  over  300  Europeans, 
while  at  Ayuthia  itself  the  wdiite  population  had  become 
so  considerable  by  the  year  1548  as  to  supply  a battalion 
of  volunteers  for  the  King’s  service  against  Pegu. 
Marvellous  stories  of  the  overflowing  wealth  of  the  Far 
East,  combined  with  manifest  j>rofits  reaped  by  those 
who  returned  thence,  raised  in  these  early  times  a great 
desire  throughout  Portugal  to  participate  in  merchant 
ventures  over-seas,  and  in  all  the  seaport  towns  of  that 
country  vessels  were  continually  fitting  out  and  sailing 
away  with  the  blessing  of  the  Church,  upon  high 
adventu]-e  to  the  Orient. 

Though  ostensibly  undertaken  for  trading  purposes, 
these  expeditions  were  all  lavishly  supplied  with  arms, 
and  investors  took  much  comfort  in  the  knowledge  that 
though  trade  might  fail,  the  merchants  would  find 


COMMERCE  AND  TRADE 


377 


plenty  of  opportunities  for  despoiling  wicked  pagans,  to 
the  glory  of  God  and  to  their  own  enrichment.  Nor 
were  they  at  all  mistaken,  for  the  leaders  of  the  adven- 
turers, often  finding  that  to  get  rich  by  lawful  commerce 
was  a more  lengthy  process  than  they  liked,  resorted 
without  hesitation  to  pillaging  defenceless  towns  and  to 
piracy  on  the  high  seas,  whereby  they  amassed  great 
wealth  and  incidentally  brought  the  hatred  of  the  East 
upon  their  race  and  caused  the  name  of  Portugal  to  stink 
in  the  nostrils  of  all  Asia.  Siam  received  a liberal  share 
of  the  attentions  of  these  pious  gentlemen.  Up  and 
down  the  west  coast  of  the  Mala}^  Peninsula  and  round 
the  shores  of  the  Gulf  they  cruised,  and  gathered  a rich 
harvest  from  the  junks  which  they  met  and  the  towns 
which  they  visited,  so  that  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  many 
individuals  of  their  race  had  settled  in  Siam,  had  started 
mission  work  and  had  even  attained  to  positions  of  trust 
in  the  king’s  service,  the  -coming  of  the  Dutch  and 
English  into  the  Eastern  seas  was  hailed  with  joy  by 
the  Siamese,  as  a possible  deliverance  from  the  horrid 
Portuguese  scourge.  When  the  Dutch  and  English 
East  India  Companies  began  operations  in  Siam,  they 
soon  ousted  the  Portuguese  from  their  monopoly  of  the 
trade  and  there  ensued  a very  keen  competition  between 
the  merchants  of  all  three  nationalities  which,  with  much 
bitter  feeling  and  not  a little  actual  bloodshed,  continued 
all  through  the  seventeenth  century. 

By  ancient  custom,  the  foreign  trade  of  Siam  was  a 
royal  monopol}’  and  much  of  the  revenue  Avas  paid  in 
the  form  of  produce,  such  articles  as  tin,  pepper,  stick- 
lac,  gum-benjamin,  beeswax,  ebony,  rosoAvood  and  others 
being  supplied  from  the  different  proAunces  in  AAdiich 
they  AAxre  produced.  These  Avere  all  stored  in  the 
royal  Avarehouses  and  Avere  exported  by  the  royal  shi])s 
or  sold  to  foreign  traders,  Avliile  all  export  trade  by 
priA'ate  indiAuduals  aaxts  discouraged.  It  folloAA^ed  that. 


378 


SIAM 


as  no  business  could  be  done  except  by  the  royal  favour, 
no  efforts  were  spared  l^y  any  of  the  foreign  factories  to 
keep  the  King  Avell  disposed,  and  each  party  strove, 
by  insinuation  and  accusation,  to  bring  discredit  upon 
the  others.  At  first  the  Dutch  and  English  used  the 
port  of  Patani  as  their  emporium  and  seldom  went 
further  north.  After  some  ten  years  or  so,  however,  the 
trade  of  Patani  declining,  they  moved  up  to  Ajmthia 
where  they  established  factories  and  where,  for  a time, 
they  drove  a thriving  business.  The  Dutch,  however, 
ultimately  got  the  upper  hand,  and  both  Portuguese  and 
British  trade  declined,  until  the  houses  of  these  latter 
nations  had  to  be  given  iqi,  though  many  independent 
merchants  (interlopers  as  the  East  India  companies 
dubbed  them)  continued  to  trade  on  their  own  account. 
In  1C80  a French  factory  was  established  but,  its  object 
being  rather  political  than  commercial,  was  without  any 
direct  effect  upon  the  trade  of  the  country.  Indirectl}^, 
however,  its  results  were  far-reaching  and  disastrous, 
for  it  was  owing  to  French  ambitions  that,  a few  years 
later,  a revolution  took  j)lace  in  Siam,  one  result  of  which 
was  the  complete  dislocation  of  all  trade  with  Europeans 
and  the  practical  closing  of  tfie  country  to  foreign 
merchants  other  than  Chinese.  The  sea-borne  trade  of 
the  country,  however,  by  no  means  declined  because 
Europeans  no  longer  had  a share  in  it.  On  the  contrary 
commerce  witli  otlier  countries  of  the  Ear  East  increased 
rapidly  and  soon  a large  fleet  of  juuks  was  devoted 
solely  to  the  Chiiio-Siamese  tmde.  At  the  same  time  a 
number  of  ships  were  Imilt  by  the  king,  which  carried 
his  produce  to  Cochin-CUiiiia,  the  Malay  Peninsula  ports, 
Java,  Sumatra  and  even  to  the  coast  of  India.  Gcjasion- 
ally,  European  ships  visited  Siam  but  the  treatment  they 
met  with  did  not  encourage  them  to  return.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  efforts  were  made  to 
re-aAvaken  French  interest  in  the  country  and  in  the 


COMMERCE  AND  TRADE  379 


History  of  Siam  by  M.  Turpin  may  be  read  the  incite- 
ments of  that  patriot  to  his  countrymen  to  re-establish 
themselves  in  the  country ; to  demand  payment  of 
century-old  debts  said  to  be  still  due  to  the  French 
Company  and,  if  gentle  arguments  failed,  to  take  the 
whole  kingdom,  which,  he  said,  could  be  accomj)lished 
with  ease  by  a couple  of  thousand  French  soldiers.  All 
this,  however,  came  to  nothing,  and  when  John  Crawfurd 
visited  Bangkok,  now  the  capital,  in  1822,  he  found  a 
large  and  flourisliing  foreign  trade  with  scarcely  a single 
European  ship  engaged  in  it. 

llie  First  Commercial  Treaties. — The  making  of  the 
treaty  of  1820-27  l)etween  the  Hon.  East  India  Company 
(British)  and  Siam  was  the  first  serious  step  towards 
reviving  European  trade.  This  treaty,  and  the  articles 
subsequently  added  thereto,  secured  the  right  of  all 
British  ships  to  vAit  the  ports  of  Siam  and  to  trade, 
subject  to  the  payment  of  such  duties  as  might  from 
time  to  time  be  ordered,  but  left  the  question  of  the 
settlement  of  British  subjects  in  Bangkok  or  any  other 
part  of  the  country  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  King. 
The  United  States  Government  elfected  a somewhat 
similar  treaty  in  1833.  Resulting  from  these  rearrang- 
meiits,  the  number  of  Indian  merchants  in  Bangkok 
increased  considerably  and  vessels  Hying  the  British 
and  American  flags  a])peared  more  frequently  in  the 
Menam  Chao  Bliaya.  By  1810  one  English  house  of 
business  had  been  successfully  estal)lished,  receiving 
merchandise,  principally  cotton-3^arn  and  piece-goods, 
from  Liv^erpool  direct  and  des])atching  thither  some 
half-dozen  ships  a year  with  caigoes  (T  tea,  and  sugar, 
ivory,  gamboge,  dye-woods,  tin,  lead,  spices,  etc.  The 
American  trade,  whicdi  was  in  the  same  commodities, 
was  considerably  smaller.  At  this  time  and  for  some 
years  subsequently,  a large  quantity  of  sugar  was 
exported,  twenty  or  more  ships  owned  by  British  subjects 


880 


SIAM 


annually  carrying  cargoes  of  this  product  to  Singapore 
and  Bombay.  All  this  however,  represented  a very 
small  proportion  of  the  foreign  trade  of  the  country, 
which  continued  to  be  carried  in  the  King’s  ships  or  in 
Chinese  junks  as  before.  Indeed,  considering  the 
numerous  disadvantages  under  Avhich  British  trade  was 
conducted,  the  treaty  notwithstanding,  it  is  a matter  for 
some  surprise  that  it  persisted  at  all.  The  commercial 
clauses  of  the  treaty,  inadequate  as  they  were,  Avere 
often  disregarded  by  the  Government  and  the  British 
trader  AA^as  placed  in  a position  Avhich  compared  most 
unfaA'ourably  AAuth  that  enjoyed  by  the  Chinese.  Thus, 
the  British  Avere  bound  by  treaty  to  the  payment  of 
heavy  tonnage  dues,  from  wliich  the  Chinese  were 
exempt.  The  British  could  neither  build  ships,  occupy 
lands  or  houses,  export  rice,  the  chief  product  of  the 
country,  charter  vessels,  or  travel  in  the  interior,  AA^hile 
the  Chinese  did  all  of  these  things  Avithout  hindrance 
of  any  kind.  Moreover  the  Government  prohibited  the 
export  of  timber  and  salt  and  farmed  the  trade  in  a 
number  of  other  articles  in  direct  infringement  of  the 
treaty  and,  by  selling  monopolies  to  the  Chinese, 
effectually  debarred  the  British  from  obtaining  cargoes 
except  on  payment  of  ruinous  prices  to  the  very  persons 
against  AAdiom.they  Avere  in  competition.  The  situation 
in  time  became  almost  intolerable  and  moreoAmr  efforts 
on  the  part  of  the  Hon.  East  India  Company  to  improve 
this  state  of  things  by  revision  of  treaties  Avere  frustrated 
by  the  interest  AAdiich  the  Chinese  Avere  able  to  make 
with  the  king  and  the  cliief  officers  of  State.  Efforts 
made  by  the  United  States  GoATrnment,  to  reAuse  the 
treaty  of  that  nation  Avith  Siam,  met  AAoth  no  better 
results. 

Later  Commercial  Treaties. — The  accession  of  King 
Maha  Mongkut  in  1881,  lioAA^eA-er,  brought  about  an 
immediate  change  in  the  asjAect  of  affairs,  for  that 


COMMERCE  AND  TRADE  381 


monarch  having  given  inncli  time  to  the  study  of 
European  science,  languages  and  customs,  was  not  only 
imbued  with  strong  European  sympathies  but  had 
grasped  the  fact  that  to  encourage  the  notoriously  evil 
practices  of  a few  Cdiinese  monopoly-holders  at  the 
expense  of  trade  with  the  civilised  world,  and  contrary 
to  the  often  expressed  desires  of  the  governments  of  at 
Ifeast  two  j)owerful  nations,  was  the  worst  kind  of  policy, 
and  one  which,  if  persisted  in,  must  infallibly  plunge  his 
country  into  innumerable  difficulties.  He  therefore 
early  revealed  an  inclination  to  better  the  position  of  the 
European  merchants  resorting  to  Siam  and  when,  in 
1855,  Sir  John  Bowring  was  sent  to  Bangkok  by  the 
British  Government  to  negotiate  a new  treaty,  that 
officer  found  little  difficulty  in  concluding  an  arrange- 
ment which  placed  British  trade  with  Siam  on  an 
entirely  new  footing  and  this,  followed  shortly  after- 
Avards  by  similar  treaties  Avith  most  of  the  PoAvers,  Avas 
in  fact  the  key  that  opened  the  great  resources  of  Siam 
to  the  commerce  of  the  Western  AA^orld.  This  important 
document  not  only  secured  to  all  British  merchants  a 
treatment  in  all  respects  equal  to  that  meted  out  to 
others,  provided  for  the  appointment  of  a Consul  to 
guard  their  interests  and  enal)led  them  to  penetrate  into 
the  interior  of  the  country,  to  buy  their  goods  AAdiere 
they  pleased  and  eA^en  to  grow  their  oAvn  produce  in 
certain  districts,  but,  in  a series  of  elaborate  schedules 
it  definitely  fixed  the  import  and  export  duties,  the 
octroi,  the  reA^enue  on  all  kinds  of  produce  and,  in  fact, 
all  the  taxes  AAdiich  British  subjects  could  be  called  upon 
to  pay.  Thus,  as  Sir  John  himself  recorded  in  the 
account  of  his  mission,  ‘ it  Avas  clear  that  the  treaty  in- 
A^oHed  a total  reA'olution  in  all  the  financial  machinery 
of  the  goA^ernment,  that  it  must  l)ring  about  a total 
change  in  theAAdiole  system  of  taxation,  that  it  took  up  a 
large  proportion  of  the  existing  sources  of  reA^enue,  that 


382 


SIAM 


it  uprooted  a great  number  of  privileges  and  monopolies 
wliicli  bad  not  only  l^een  long  established  but  which 
were  held  by  the  most  influential  nobles,  and  the  highest 
functionaries  of  the  State.’  It  is  probable  that  neither 
the  King,  rather  frightened  at  the  magnitude  of  his 
innovations,  nor  Sir  John,  breathing  anxious  prayers 
that  his  endeavours  might  prove  a universal  blessing, 
anticipated  to  the  full  the  far-reaching  effects  of  the 
treaty  or  the  enormous  advantage,  notwithstanding  the 
drawbacks  of  Consular  jurisdiction,  which  the  measure 
was  shortly  to  confer  upon  the  trade,  the  wealth  and  the 
general  progress  and  popular  welfare  of  Siam  ; but  had 
they  been  able  to  foresee  the  prosperous  condition  to 
which  the  country  has  since  attained  as  a direct  result 
of  their  labours,  the  pleasure  inspired  in  the  hearts  of 
tliese  two  statesmen  by  the  sound  of  distant  guns  salut- 
ing the  new  treaty  would  certainly  have  been  many 
times  enhanced. 

Growth  of  Ewropean  and  Decline  of  Chinese  Trade. 
—The  years  which  followed  the  new  treaties  brought 
an  expansion  of  foreign  trade,  at  first  not  very  conspicu- 
ous, but  later  becoming  increasingly  evident  with  every 
year  that  passed.  The  Chinese  trade  however,  never 
throve  after  the  making  of  the  treaties  with  European 
Powers  but,  bereft  of  the  support  of  the  many  corruptions 
by  which  it  had  formerly  lived,  and  exposed  to  the  com- 
paratively honest  and  quite  relentless  competition  of 
white  men,  it  languished  and  declined.  Gradually  also, 
the  once  proud  fleet  of  over  four  hundred  junks  engaged 
in  the  China  trade  was  reduced  by  the  competition  of 
European-ow-ned  steamers  to  less  than  a hundred.  The 
square-rigged  vessels  of  the  king  and  the  nobility  were 
the  next  to  go.  In  spite  of  their  excellent  build  and 
many  sea-worthy  qualities  they  failed,  after  a time,  to 
maintain  the  unequal  struggle  again  modern  progress 
and,  one  by  one,  were  sold  out  of  the  country  or  were 


COMMERCE  AND  TRADE  383 


beaclied,  stripped  of  their  fittings  and  left  to  rot  in  the 
mud  of  the  river  on  whose  waters  they  had  long  so 
proudly  floated.  Before  1800,  they  had  finally  dis- 
appeared and  the  only  sailing  vessels  of  European  rig 
now  visiting  the  port  of  Bangkok  are  the  Norwegian 
and  British  Ininher  ships,  which  sometimes  call  for 
cargoes  of  teak,  and  a few  small  coasting  schooners 
from  the  Malay  States.  During  this  period,  over 
55  per  cent,  of  the  foreign  trade  of  Siam  was  carried  in 
English  bottoms.  The  value  of  the  trade  which  in 
1885  amounted  to  £1,900,000  exports  and  £1,350,000 
imports,  continued  to  increase  and  in  1894:  had  risen  to 
£2,450,000  exports  and  £1,710,000  imports. 

Steam  vessels  had  lieen  known  to  the  Siamese  for 
some  time  before  1857,  the  year  of  the  treaty,  and  indeed, 
one  small  steam  launch  had  been  constructed  in  Bangkok 
in  1855,  but  as  carriers  of  merchandise,  steamers  were 
uidviiown  until,  in  the  seventies,  an  ii’on  vessel  of  some 
400  tons,  part  owned  in  Siam  and  named  the  ‘ Chao 
Pha3"a,’  began  to  ]>ly  regidarly  l)etween  Singapore  and 
Bangkok.  Consular  trade  reports  of  thirt^^-five  3'ears 
ago  expatiate  on  the  maii}^  advantages  offered  by  this 
vessel,  her  speed,  ])nnctuality  and  the  magnificence  of 
her  accommodation.  Having  run  for  man}"  }’ears  and 
carried  amongst  her  passengers.  Princes,  Ministers  of 
State,  Foreign  Envo,ys  and  maii}^  other  distinguished 
travellers,  she  now  lies  a wreck  in  the  month  of  one  of 
the  peninsular  East  Coast  rivers  where  the  curious  may 
find  her,  a little  eight-knot  wrought-iron  tramp,  whose 
accommodation  would  not  nowada}'S  l)e  tolerated  by  the 
humblest  jiassenger  from  Singajiore  to  Bangkok,  but 
whose  plates,  lieing  of  a date  when  safety  was  considered 
be.f'ore  cheapness  in  shipbuilding,  are,  in  s]>ite  of  her 
hoaiy  age,  singularly  well  preserved.  This  pioneer  of 
Siamese  steamer  trade  was  not  left  very  long  without 
competition.  The  Chinese  merchants  of  Singapore  as 


384 


SIAM 


well  as  various  Englislimen  gradually  discovered  that 
facilities  for  trade  with  Siam  were  many  and  that  the 
profits  to  he  made  in  it  were  good,  and  other  vessels  were 
sliortl}"  placed  on  the  Bangkok-Singapore  run.  By  1884 
the  total  number  of  vessels,  steamers,  and  sailing  ships, 
excluding  junks,  to  clear  the  port  in  the  twelvemonth, 
had  risen  to  over  400,  of  which  more  than  half  were  under 
the  British  flag,  the  remainder  being  largely  Siamese, 
with  occasional  Dutchmen,  Frenchmen  or  Germans. 

British  Shipping. — Near  the  end  of  the  eighties  a 
branch  of  the  great  Holt  line  of  steamers  was  established 
between  Singapore  and  Bangkok,  and  a few  years  later 
a company  called  the  Scottish  Oriental  Company  Ltd., 
opened  up  a regular  and  direct  trade  with  Hongkong 
and  the  southern  China  ports.  For  some  time  these  two 
local  lines  had  everything  their  own  way,  and  by  1897 
had  driven  out  of  the  carrying  trade  all  but  a few 
privately  owned  or  heavily  subsidised  vessels.  In  1897 
the  share  of  British  shipping  in  the  carrying  trade  was 
74  per  cent  of  the  whole,  but  at  that  date  it  began  to 
decline  and  in  1900  had  fallen  to  38  per  cent. 

Growth  of  Commerce. — In  189G,  three  years  after  the 
trouble  witli  the  French,  when  many  persons  believed 
that  Siam  as  an  independent  kingdom  would  shortly 
disappear,  a further  impetus  was  given  to  foreign  trade 
by  the  signing  of  the  Anglo-F rencli  agreement  guaran- 
teeing the  autonomy  of  Siam,  which  released  for  local 
investment  much  wealth  wliicli  had  been  withheld  owing 
to  the  uncertainty  of  the  situation.  It  was  owing  largely 
to  this  fortunate  arrangement  that,  between  1894  and 
1904,  the  total  value  of  trade  of  the  port  of  Bangkok 
increased  by  £3,000,000  exports,  and  £2,700,000 
imports.  In  fact,  it  considerably  more  than  doubled 
itself,  and  that  the  limit  of  ex])ansion  had  not  even  then 
been  readied,  is  shewn  by  the  fact  that  by  1910  the 
exports  had  again  increased  by  £1,030,000  and  the 


COMMERCE  AND  TRADE 


:385 


imports  l3v  £802,000,  tlie  totals  amounting,  for  the 
year  (1909-10),  to  £7,74C),000  and  £5,272,000 
res]:>ectively. 

The  annual  grand  total  of  the  exports  and  imports  of 
Bangkok  surpasses  that  of  Greece  hy  three  and  a half 
millions  sterling  and  that  of  Persia  by  one  and  a half 
millions.  The  trade  of  Portugal  is  just  about  doul}le 
that  of  Siam  though  its  po])ulation  is  about  a million 
less.  The  total  value  of  the  trade  of  Japan  is  six  and  a 
half  times  that  of  Siam,  but  its  population  is  seven 
times  greater. 

German  Sliipping. — Occasional  German  ships  visited 
Bangkok  in  the  days  Avhen  England  and  Siam  between 
them  did  nearly  all  the  carrying  trade.  German  ships 
anywhere  were  few  and  far  between  in  those  early  times, 
and  German  interest  in  Siamese  commerce  being  almost 
nil,  were  usually  better  employed  elsewhere.  The 
great  develojiment  of  the  Siamese  rice-trade,  however, 
brought  several  Germans  to  take  a share  in  it  and  led  to 
the  establishment  of  more  than  one  German-owned  rice 
mill.  This  naturally  brought  about  an  increase  in 
German  slapping,  with  the  result  that  by  the  year  1897 
a few  German  steamers  were  in  the  habit  of  coming 
regidarly  to  Bangkok,  and  about  8 per  cent,  of  the 
annual  steam  tonnage  of  the  port  was  German.  The 
visit  of  the  King  to  the  West  in  that  year  brought  Siam 
prominently  to  the  notice  of  Europe,  at  a time  when  the 
Xortli  German  Lloyd  Company  was  in  search  of  means 
to  establish  Ljcal  branch  services,  for  the  advantage  of 
its  Far  Eastern  commerce. 

The  Bangkok  trade,  though  a small  fraction  of  tlie 
British  carrying  trade,  would  make  a consideraljle 
ditt'erence  to  that  of  Germany  if  it  could  be  diverted  in- 
to German  bottoms,  and  negotiations  were  therefore  set 
on  foot  which  resulted  in  the  purchase  of  Holt’s  Bangkok 
steamers  and  of  the  whole  of  the  Scottish  Oriental 


386 


SIAM 


Company’s  fleet,  the  Germans  paying  very  long  prices 
in  order  to  obtain  a position  which  should  enable  them 
to  grasp  the  entire  trade.  There  remained,  however, 
a few  British  and  Norwegian  tramp  steamers  and,  in  the 
somewhat  drastic  efforts  which  they  made  to  exclude 
these,  the  North  German  Lloyd  Company  exasj^erated 
the  rice-millers,  and  caused  them  to  resort  much  to  the 
chartering  of  outside  vessels.  Furthermore,  a second 
German  Company  and  the  Japanese  Nippon  Oyusen 
Kaisha  both  entered  into  competition  for  the  trade,  and 
violent  freight  wars  resulted,  followed  by  almost  equally 
disastrous  compromise.  The  North  German  Lloyd 
therefore  though  they  ]>aid  dearly,  failed  in  their  object 
of  capturing  the  trade,  German  tonnage  entered 
inwards  in  the  port  of  Bangkok  in  the  year  1908-09 
being  but  50  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  followed  by  the 
Norwegians  with  22  per  cent.,  British  with  18  per  cent., 
and  Danish,  Siamese,  French  and  others  aggregating 
10  per  cent.  Moreover  the  Siam  branch  of  the  North 
German  Lloyd,  far  from  adding  to  the  profits  of  the 
main  line,  caused  a serious  reduction  of  the  same. 

Expo)‘ts  from  Bangkok. — ^In  the  exports  of  Bangkok 
as  revealed  by  the  statistics  for  1908-09,  the  two  articles, 
rice  and  teak,  very  far  exceed  the  aggregate  of  ail  the 
others,  these  two  together  reaching  the  value  of 
£G,900,0()0  or  over  nine-tenths  of  the  whole  export  trade. 
It  is  remarkable  that  when  Siamese  commerce  first 
began  to  attract  notice,  neither  of  these  articles  Avere 
to  be  counted  upon  as  exports  at  all.  In  the  beginning 
of  European  trade  Avith  Siam,  the  commodities  for  Avhich 
the  merchants  (piarrelled  and  intrigued,  were  sugar, 
])epper,  cardamoms,  gamboge,  gum-benjamin,  ivory, 
tortf)ise-shell,  ebony,  rose-Avood,  sapan-Avood,  and  eagle- 
Avood,  all  articles  of  luxury  AAfliich,  on  account  of  iheir 
rarity,  commanded  fabulous  prices.  Great  risks  of 
sliipAvreck,  disease,  and  AA^ar  Avere  encountered  by  the 


COMMERCE  AND  TRADE 


387 

men  who  sailed  in  search  of  these  commodities,  hut  the 
profits  accruing  to  those  who  were  fortunate  enough  to 
bring  home  a full  cargo  were  so  great  that  volunteers 
were  never  to  seek  for  maiming  the  tiny,  ill-found 
vessels  annually  venturing  forth  on  vojuiges  iWiich, 
under  the  best  of  circumstances,  took  years  in  the 
accomplishment.  The  statistics  of  the  Bangkok  Custom 
House  still  contain  most  of  the  aliove  articles  though  tlie 
quantities  now  exported  are  usually  trivial  and,  in 
addition  to  these,  there  are  several  articles  entered,  the 
presence  of  which  can  hardly  fail  to  arouse  speculation 
in  the  mind  of  the  uninitiated  as  to  the  uses  for  wlucJi 
these  same  may  be  intended.  Such  articles  are  liirds'- 
nests,  tigers’-bones,  tigers’-glue,  deer-horns  in  veh'et, 
rhinoceros’-horns,  sharks’-fins,  and  armadillo-skins,  all  of 
which  are  not  only  exported  but  appear  to  command  in 
most  instances  an  extraordinarily  high  price.  Thus 
bird s’-nests  are  valued  at  about  £2  ]>er  lb.,  tigers’-gliie 
at  5s.  per  lb.,  deer -horns  at  £8  the  ];air,  rhinoceros’-horns 
at  £3  10s.  per  lb.,  and  sharks’-fins  and  armadillo-skins 
at  about  Is.  per  lb.  A further  glance  at  the  statistics 
shows  that  these  commodities  are  nearly  all  slii]»ped  to 
Hongkong  or  the  Chinese  ports,  that  is,  they  are  for 
Chinese  consumption.  Now  the  Chinese  phaimacopoeia 
sets  an  immense  value  upon  the  strengthening  qualities 
wliich  are  supposed  to  reside  in  certain  ])arts  of  many 
animals.  ITie  ‘ celebrated  edible  birds’-jiest,’  being  made 
entirely  from  a gelatinous  substance  secreted  during  tlie 
breeding  season  by  certain  species  of  martin,  issup]>osed 
to  contain  all  the  strength  of  the  unfortrmate  little 
architect  in  a concentrated  form,  while  i hinoceros’-liorns 
and  deer-horns,  which  by  their  rapid  growtli  A'isibly 
al)5orl)  the  substance  of  the  owner,  are  deemed  to  consist 
simply  of  vital  energy  in  a peculiarly  condensed  form. 
The  tiger  is  the  very  incarnation  of  ferocity  and  strength 
and  if,  as  European  doctors  hud,  mere  essence  of  beef 


888 


SIAM 


supplies  a powerful  stimulant,  how  much  more  invigor- 
ating’ must  be  a decoction  the  glue  obtained  by  boiling 
down  the  king  of  beasts.  In  fact  all  these  mysterious 
articles  of  commerce  are  in  demand  for  the  sole  purpose 
of  compounding  the  invigorating  tonics  usually  pre- 
scribed by  the  celestial  medical  faculty  in  cases  of 
exhaimtion  of  the  vital  forces. 

The  modern  export  trade  of  Siam,  which  may  be  said 
to  date  from  early  in  the  19th  century,  at  first  consisted 
chiefly  of  cargoes  of  pepper  and  other  spices,  woods  of 
various  kinds  and  re-exported  Chinese  tea,  but  more 
especially  of  sugar.  No  accurate  records  of  the  com- 
merce of  these  distant  days  have  been  preserved,  but 
tlie  writings  of  Neale,  Bowring  and  others  make  it 
abuudantly  clear  that  the  sugar  trade  was  once  one  of 
the  big  things  of  the  country.  The  masters  of  ships 
frequenting  Bangkok  took  all  the  sugar  they  could  get 
for  their  owners  and  then  bartered  the  guns  and  other 
ships’  furniture  in  their  charge  for  extra  consign- 
ments, which  they  ultimately  disposed  of  to  their  own 
consideraltle  profit,  whereby  it  came  about  that  most  of 
the  guns  mounted  in  the  old  riverine  forts  guarding  the 
approach  to  Bangkok  jrore  the  arms  of  many  Eurox^ean 
States  though  they  ’were  fondly  supposed  by  their  rightful 
owners  to  have  l)een  jettisoned  at  sea  during  storms. 

In  time,  however,  the  boom  waned,  and  the  sugar 
growing  and  refining  industries  fell  off  to  such  an  extent 
that  Iry  1880  the  ex])ort  had  dwdndled  to  a mere  nothing. 
But  in  the  meanwhile  the  rice  trade  had  grown  uj)  and 
had  come  to  occu])y  the  attention  of  merchants  to  the 
])ractical  ex  ‘lusion  of  all  else. 

The  Rice  Trade. — The  best  Siamese  white  rice  is  sent 
to  Singax)ore,  whence  it  is  distributed  through  the 
}dalay  Archi])elago  and  the  countries  adjacent  thereto. 
It  commands  a better  jjrice  than  the  produce  of  French 
Indo-C'hina  and  of  Burma,  though  this  may  be  more  on 


COMMERCE  AND  TRADE  389 


account  of  the  local  reputation  it  has  acquired  tlian 
because  of  any  real  present  sn])eriority.  Ordinary  Siam 
wliite  rice  finds  its  way,  via  Singapore  and  Hongkong, 
to  most  parts  of  the  world.  Great  cjuantities  are  taken 
by  China  and  occasionally,  in  years  of  scarcity  in  Japan, 
a brisk  market  is  found  in  that  country  also.  Cargo- 
rice,  which  is  rice  that  has  been  roughly  husked  but 
not  properly  milled,  is  both  shijij^ed  direct  to  Europe 
and  transhipped  at  Singapore  for  the  same  destination, 
Germany  and  Great  Britain  taking  the  major  part. 
About  90,000  tons,  valued  at  l)et\veen  five  and  six  hundred 
thousand  pounds,  were  sent  direct  to  India  during 
1907,  but  this  was  something  out  of  the  usual  and  as 
a rule  from  one  thii*d  to  a half  of  the  cargo-rice  exported 
goes  via  Hongkong  to  China.  The  total  amount  of  rice 
of  all  kinds  exported  from  the  country  during  the  four 
years  ending  with  1908-09,  averages  al^out  850,000  tons 
a year,  the  highest  recorded  export  in  an}’-  year  being 
that  of  960,01)0  tons  for  1908-09.  This  is  a large 
amount,  l)ut  tlie  country  should  l^e,  and  undoulotedly  in 
future  will  l)e,  able  to  export  much  more.  The  rice- 
lands  of  Siam  are  no  whit  less  fertile  than  those  of 
Burma,  while  the  Siamese  is  to  the  full  as  able  and 
intelligent  a cultivator  as  his  Burmese  neighljour ; 
both  countries  are  rice-growing  centres  and  sixt}'  years 
ago  were  in  Amry  similar  conditions  as  regards  cultivated 
area,  po])ulation  and  government,  Siam,  if  an}fihing, 
holding  a slight  adAvantage  in  all  these  respects.  Yet 
at  the  present  day  the  annual  rice  export  of  Burma, 
about  2,000,000  tons,  is  a good  deal  more  than  doid^le 
that  of  Siam.  The  causes  of  the  present  great  disjvxrity  are 
to  be  found  in  the  facts  that  AAdiile  the  India  GoAmrnment 
has  spent  money  freely  in  proAuding  Burma  A\dth 
irrigation  AAmrks,  the  Siamese  Government  has  only  just 
begun  to  deA'ote  some  of  its  income  to  this  most  ])rofitable 
form  of  iiiAmstment.  While  in  Burma  CA^ery  possible 


390 


SIAM 


inducement  and  facility  have  been  offered  and  even  forced 
upon  the  peasantry  to  increase  the  output  of  the 
cultivated  lands  and  to  add  to  their  extent,  in  Siam 
only  the  smallest  of  efforts  have  been  made  in  this 
direction  ; and  finally  while  the  population  of  Lower 
Lurina  has  more  than  doubled  itself  since  the  British 
occu])ation,  that  of  Siam  remained  stationary,  or  perhaps 
declined,  during  the  course  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Xow,  lioweAmr,  Siam  is  folloAving  the  footsteps  of 
Burma  ; the  importance  of  irrigation  Avorks  has  been 
fully  realised  ; cadastral  suiweys,  land  registration  and 
a Amstly  improved  revenue  administration  are  already 
bringing  about  an  increase  in  the  area  under  cultivation, 
and  hygienic  measures  are  being  taken  to  remoAm  the 
causes  Avhich  in  the  past  haAm  hindered  the  natural 
increase  of  the  population. 

Without  any  very  striking  assistance  from  the 
(Government  but  in  consequence  of  the  increased 
business  demand  for  the  commodity,  the  amount  of  rice 
annually  aAmilable  for  export  has  about  doubled  itself 
since  the  opening  of  the  present  century,  a fact  which 
encourages  the  hope  that,  AAuth  adequate  State  assistance 
it  Avill  be  only  a matter  of  time  for  Siam  to  range 
alongside  of  Burma,  Avhich  country  be  it  remembered, 
holds  easily  the  first  position  amongst  the  rice-exporting 
communities  of  the  Far  East  and  probably  of  the  world. 

llie  Teak  Trade. — Bangkok  has  exported  a certain 
quantity  of  teak  for  many  A^ears,  but  it  Avas  not  until  the 
closing  of  the  teak  forests  of  Upper  Burma  after  the 
annexation  of  that  country  b,y  England  in  1885,  that  the 
Siamese  trade  assumed  important  dimensions.  Up  to 
that  time  the  trade  had  been  chiefly  in  the  hands  of 
('bines'^  merchants  and  the  timber  sent  out  by  tliem 
was  so  unreliable  in  quality  that  Siamese  teak  Avas  veiy 
little  in  demand.  The  iiiA^estment  of  European  capital 
in  the  industry  and  the  consequent  em])loyment  of 


COMMERCE  AND  TRADE  391 


trained  European  foresters,  together  with  the  inaugura- 
tion of  a Government  Forest  Department  soon  had  the 
effect  of  increasing  and  regulating  the  output  and  at 
tlie  same  time  of  improAung  the  quality,  and  Siam  teak 
is  noAv  in  request  and  is  considered  equal  to  the  best 
produced  elseAvhere.  The  average  annual  export  of 
teak  from  Bangkok  during  the  liA^e  years  ending  Avitli 
1887  AA^as  under  20, 000  tons,  valued  at  £130,000  ; that 
for  the  fiA^e  years  ending  1909-10  AA^as  85,000  tons  valued 
at  nearly  £1,000,000,  figures  AAdiich  indicate  clearly  the 
groAA'tli  of  the  trade.  Teak  is  exported  both  in  steamers 
and  in  sailing  ships,  being  taken  on  board  at  the  timber 
mills  in  Bangkok,  Avhere  it  has  been  saAAui  into  squares, 
planks,  shingles  and  scantlings,  and  carried  to  Europe, 
Bombay  or  Hongkong.  The  quantity  yearl}^  aAmilable 
for  export  fluctuates,  as  the  supply  floated  out  from  tlie 
forests  on  the  annual  floods  and  rafted  doAAui  to  Bangkok 
depends  largely  upon  the  abundance  or  deficiency  of  the 
rainfall  in  the  interior.  Not  all  the  Siamese  teak  export 
is  from  Bangkok,  for  about  40,000  logs,  AAdiich  come  from 
the  forests  of  the  north-AA^est  districts,  are  annually  rafted 
doAvn  the  SalAAdn  riA’-er  into  Burma.  The  largest  annual 
ex])ort  of  Siam  teak  on  record  aaus  for  the  year  1904-05, 
since  AAdiich  time  the  groAving  activity  of  the  Royal  Forest 
Department  has  caused  a slight  continual  diminution. 

Cattle  Trade. — For  many  years  Bangkok  carried  on  a 
brisk  export  trade  in  cattle,  the  Singapore  meat  supply 
being  almost  entirely  draAAm  thence.  In  the  year  1897, 
28,000  head  of  bullocks,  Amlued  at  about  £80,(>00,  AA^ere 
ex])orted.  ddie  trade  aatis  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  Asiatic 
British  subjects  ; the  animals  AA'ere  cheap,  being  mostly 
stolen  property,  no  quarantine  regulations  had  to  be 
observed,  coni]jlaisant  ship-masters  AA'ere  careful  not  to 
offend  the  shippers  liy  enforcing  cA^en  the  most  elementary 
precautions  for  the  protection  and  safe  transit  of  their 
living  freight,  and  the  trade  aaus  a most  profitable  one. 


392 


SIAM 


A few  years  ago,  however,  the  Siamese  Government 
introduced  quarantine  regulations  entailing  detention  of 
the  animals,  with  incidental  feeding,  for  some  days  prior 
to  export.  The  rural  police  began  to  check  cattle  theft, 
thereby  endangering  the  main  source  of  supply,  and  the 
scandalous  treatment  of  animals  in  transit  caused  a 
public  outcry,  which  compelled  masters  of  vessels  to 
insist  on  j)roper  precautions  for  protecting  and  feeding 
the  beasts.  Prohts  immediately  fell  oh,  and  the  trade 
began  to  diminish,  being  further  assisted  in  its  down- 
ward course  by  outbreaks  of  rinderpest  and  anthrax  in 
the  interior.  Finally  the  introduction  of  a system  of 
cold  storage  at  Singapore  gave  the  finishing  blow  to  the 
trade  and  in  1907-08  practically  no  cattle  were  exported.* 
The  trade  in  hides  and  horns,  though  apparently  also 
declining,  still  amounts  in  value  to  about  £100,000. 

General  Exports. — The  export  of  valuable  woods  other 
than  teak,  including  box,  ebony,  sapan  and  rose-wood, 
once  so  much  sought  after  in  Siam,  has  declined  steadily 
for  a longtime  and  now  amounts  to  some  £15,000  in  value, 
but  a trade  in  the  chea])er  sorts  of  timber  is  springing 
u])  and  bids  fair  to  assume  considerable  proportions  in 
the  near  future.  The  value  of  this  cheap  timber  exported, 
rose  from  about  £1500  in  1906-07  to  £7000  in  1908-09. 

The  amount  of  fish  available  for  export  varies  with  the 
<‘onditions  which  affect  the  sea-fishing  industry.  In  an 
average  year  the  value  of  the  export  amounts  to  about 
£100,000,  but  it  frequently  falls  very  far  below  that  sum 
while  in  bumper  years  it  far  exceeds  it.  Almost  the 
whole  of  the  export  goes  to  China.  The  annual  export 
of  pepper  from  Siam  amounts  to  about  1400  tons,  valued 
at  from  forty  to  fifty  thousand  pounds.  The  price  fluctu- 
ates consideral)ly  but  with  a general  downward  tendency 

* Since  then,  it  is  true,  there  has  been  a slight  revival  on 
account  of  the  demand  for  draught  animals  in  the  British 
Federated  Malay  States  and  between  four  and  five  thousand  head 
were  shipped  fioin  Bangkok  in  the  year  1910-1911. 


COMMERCE  AND  TRADE  393 


and  is,  at  the  present  day,  about  lialf  what  it  was  twenty 
years  ago.  Other  exports  are  onions,  raw  silk,  silk  cloth 
re-exported  after  being  dyed  in  Bangkok,  gems,  tree-cotton 
and  sundries,  all  of  which  are  individually  unimportant. 

Imports  to  Bamjkolx. — In  the  days  when  the  sea-borne 
trade  of  Siam  was  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  Chinese,  the 
annual  fleet  of  junks  brought  in  siks,  cotton  cloth, 
tobacco,  tea,  refined  sugar,  and  notions  of  all  kinds  and 
the  merchants,  mooring  alongside  each  other,  spread 
their  wares  in  booths  on  the  awning-covered  decks  and 
converted  their  ships  into  a large  floating  l)azaar, 
whither  the  l:)eauty  and  fashion  of  tlie  city  repaired  by 
water  and  passed  long  hours  in  shopping  and  examining 
the  novelties  of  the  season.  This  custom  has  long  since 
passed  away,  however,  the  Chinese  tea,  silk  and  gim- 
cracks,  which  are  still  largely  imported,  are  consigned 
to  the  shops  of  Sam  Peng,  the  Chinese  quarter,  and  the 
waters  of  the  port  are  given  over  to  steamers,  lighters 
and  cargo-boats,  while  the  import  warehouses  are  filled 
to  overflowing  with  goods  more  consistent  with  the 
demands  of  a progressive  and  civilised  community. 
First  and  foremost  among  imports  come  cotton  goods  of 
various  kinds,  the  value  of  which  may  be  ])laced  at 
al)out  £1,100,000  a year.  These  come  cliiefly  from 
Great  Britain  and  Bombay  and  have  now  almost  entirely 
replaced  home-made  cotton  clothing.  Silk  goods  to  the 
value  of  £210,000  are  brought  from  China,  Japan, 
Bombay  and  to  a small  extent  from  Europe.  Provisions, 
£470,000,  are  mostly  Euro])ean  ])roduce.  Metals  and 
machinery  to  the  value  of  £400,000  are  imported,  chiefly 
from  England  and  Germany.  Petroleum  oil  from 
America,  Burma  and  Sumatra  (Dutch)  is  annnaily  con- 
sumed in  the  country  to  the  value  of  £4<  H ),( K H ).  Of  gunnies 
or  canvas  sacks  for  the  packing  of  rice,  £200,000  worth 
are  imported  chiefly  from  India.  C'hina  su])])lies  sugar 
to  the  extent  of  £200,000.  Foreign  liquor  includes 


394 


SIAM 


8am slm  or  rice  spirit  from  China,  wines  from  France, 
Germany  and  Spain,  brandy  from  France,  whisky  from 
the  British  Isles  and  Germany,  and  beer  from  Germany, 
Denmark  and  England.  The  taste  for  foreign  liquors 
lias  of  late  }Tars  increased  considerably  amongst  the 
Siamese  and.  to  meet  and  encourage  this,  various  brands 
of  the  most  horrible  firewater  labelled  ‘Finest  French 
Brandy,’  ‘ Best  Scotch  Whisky  ’ and  what  not,  are 
manufactured  in  Germany  and  placed  upon  the  Siamese 
market,  at  the  modest  price  of  eight-pence  or  so  per 
liottle  ! An  attempt  is  being  made  by  the  government, 
in  encouraging  the  local  distilling  of  honest,  if  nasty, 
rice-spirit,  to  check  the  consumption  of  this  poison,  but 
the  success  of  the  endeavour  is  not  yet  assured.  Some 
£120,000  worth  of  opium  is  annually  imported  from 
India.  Until  quite  recently  the  importation  and  sale  of 
opium  was  farmed  out  and  produced  a A^ery  large  pro- 
portion of  the  public  rewenue.  The  system  fostered  the 
smuggling  of  opium  vdiich  Iiecame  in  time  a very 
lucratiAm  trade.  In  1907  the  farm  was  abolished  and  a 
government  department  now  controls  the  import  trade, 
and  armed  Avith  a neAv  and  drastic  hiAv,  is  maintaining 
a contest  Avith  the  smugglers,  the  ultimate  issue  of  which 
Avas  for  a long  time  doubtful.  Chemicals  and  drugs 
imported  represent  about  £70,000  in  A^alue  ; hardAA^are, 
cutlery,  etc.,  another  £70,000  ; cane  and  bamboo  manu- 
factures (mostly  from  Hongkong)  yet  another  £70,000, 
and  other  imports  such  as  paper,  cement,  furniture, 
jeAA^ellery,  leather  goods,  oils  and  paint,  rope,  soap,  tobacco 
and  sundries  make  up  together  rather  over  £1,000,000. 

About  75  per  cent,  of  imports  come  from  A’-arious 
parts  of  the  British  Empire,  but  since  much  of  the  cargo 
for  Siam  from  Europe  and  America  is  transhipped  at 
Singapore  or  Hongkong,  a certain  amount  of  j)roduce 
of  other  foreign  countries  must  be  included  here. 
Imports,  from  Great  Britain  direct,  amount  to  £1,000,000 


COMMERCE  AND  TRADE  395 


in  value,  or  rather  more  than  one  sixth  of  the  wliole. 
Tn  the  almost  complete  absence  of  local  manufacturers, 
the  whole  nation  depends  altogether  upon  imported 
goods  for  the  supplying  of  all  its  wants  other  than  food 
stuffs.  In  the  village  market-places  throughout  the 
kingdom,  the  trade  marks  of  Manchester  cotton-sellers, 
tlie  familiar  legends  on  the  tiiis  of  English-made  biscuits, 
German  dyes  and  Swiss  milk,  and  the  flash  advertise- 
ments of  British  and  American  tolmcco  dealers  meet  the 
eye.  The  peasant  goes  clad  in  English  or  Indian  calico, 
wears  on  his  head  an  Austrian  straw  hat,  makes  fiis  tea 
in  an  Austrian  enamelled  iron  kettle  and  ])ours  it  into  a 
thick,  stoneware  cup,  gilded  with  what  he  takes  to  I)e 
words  of  powerful  foreign  magic,  though  these  are  in 
fact  no  more  than  the  invocation  ‘ Foi-get  me  not,’  or  the 
dedication  ' For  a good  child.’  AVhen  the  hillman  turns 
out  the  havei’sac  wdiich  seiwes  him  for  a pocket,  it  will 
])robably  be  found  to  contain,  besides  the  betel-nut,  the 
cheA\dng-cutch  and  the  inevital)le  hair-pulling  tweezers, 
indispensable  adjuncts  of  every  outfit,  a box  of  Japanese 
matches,  a crumpled  packet  of  ‘ Cycle  ’ or  ‘ Eagle  ’ 
cigarettes,  a little  Austrian  tin  box  with  a grossly  dis- 
torting mirror  in  the  lid,  and  perhaps  a coarse  German 
imitation  of  a steel  pocket-knife. 

Coiiimerce  of  Southern  Siam. — Fifteen  years  ago  the 
trade  of  Siamese  ])orts  other  than  Bangkok  did  not  in 
all  probability  exceed  £800,000  in  value,  including  the 
tin  exports  from  the  west  coast  of  Southern  Siain.  The 
west  coast  ]9orts  of  Trang,  Puket,  Paleaii,  etc.,  have  had 
trade  relations  wdth  Penang  ever  since  the  founding  of 
that  settlement,  but  the  administration  of  these  districts 
was  of  old  consistently  neglected  by  the  central  govern- 
ment of  Siam  and  left  entii'ely  in  the  hands  of  local 
dignitaries,  or  of  courtiers  appointed  from  Bangkok, 
apparently  in  order  that  they  might  have  opportunities 
of  enriching  themselves  as  quickly  as  ])0ssible.  These 


396 


SIAM 


individuals  did  tlieir  utmost  to  suppress  all  trade  wliicli 
was  not  to  tlieir  own  immediate  and  peculiar  advantage, 
and  the  resources  of  the  country  were  tlierefore  closed 
to  all  hnt  their  own  creatures.  Nevertheless,  and  in 
spite  of  tlie  absence  of  all  administrative  encouragement 
and  of  the  ]iresence  of  officials  of  an  astounding  rapacity, 
a sort  of  trade  did  mainage  to  exist,  carried  on  almost 
entirely  in  sailing  vessels  owned  by  Chinese  merchants, 
though  its  volume  was  subject  to  violent  flnctuations,  at 
times  amoimting  to  complete  temporary  extinction. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century,  however, 
even  these  distant  provinces  began  to  feel  the  effect  of 
the  reforms  which  ivere  being  organised  by  the  central 
government  in  Bangkok.  The  ups  and  downs  of  trade 
due  to  official  corruption  or  caprice  became  less  disturb- 
ing, and  in  time  were  replaced  by  a sIoav  but  steady 
upward  trend.  As  prospects  improved,  Europeans 
became  interested  in  the  commerce,  and  a large  part  of 
its  bulk  became  diverted  from  the  old  sailing  vessels  to 
steamers.  The  exports  Avliich  consist  of  tin,  pepper, 
rice,  live  stock,  and  a little  copra,  were  Amlned  in  1907 
at  about  £1,000,000,  of  Avhich  sum  tin  alone  accounted  for 
£600,000.  The  imports,  cotton  goods,  silks,  provisions, 
o])iuni  and  ilce  (to  Tongka)  totalled  about  £650,000. 

Tlie  groAvth  of  commerce  on  the  east  coast  is  CA^en 
more  recent  than  on  the  Avest.  Ten  years  ago  it  con- 
sisted of  nothing  but  a little  pepper,  betel-nut,  copra 
and  dried  fish,  small  quantities  of  AAdiich  AA^ere  carried 
to  8inga])ore  in  tAAX)  or  three  ancient  and  dilapidated 
steamers  oAvned  1)y  Chinese,  and  in  a number  of  small 
sailing  vessels,  and  tliere  exclianged  for  cotton  goods 
and  sundries.  In  LSOcS,  the  government,  then  iDeginning 
to  administer  the  coast  districts,  found  it  necessary  to 
secure  communications  Avith  the  capital  and  to  that  end 
subsidised  a suitalde  steamer  to  run  regularly  from 
Bangkok  to  SingajAore  calling  at  the  ])rincipal  settle- 


COMMERCE  AND  TRADE  397 


iiieiits  on  the  coast.  This  service  for  a long  time  failed 
to  attract  attention  hut  h}^  perseverance  the  owners  at 
last  secured  a footing  and  began  to  divert  trade  from 
the  sailing  vessels.  In  time  the  new  facilities  which 
were  offered  for  rapid  and  regular  transport  caused  the 
Ao:)liime  of  trade  to  take  an  np^vard  turn  which  became 
a rapid  increase,  when  another  ship  was  put  on.  Tlie 
sn])sidised  vessels  soon  grew  into  a fleet  and  several 
small  steamers  from  Singapore  came  to  take  a share  in 
ihe  growing  commerce.  Rice  and  paddy,  liA^e-stock,  tin 
and  timber  were  added  to  the  list  of  merchandise. 
Increasing  wealth  lu’onght  a demand  for  more  imports 
and,  in  11)07,  the  Siamese  subsidised  fleet  of  seven 
well-found  new  steamers  with  many  outside  vessels, 
carried  exports  and  imports  exceeding  £1,000,000  in 
value  from  and  to  tlie  east  coast  j^orts.  The  resources 
of  districts  concerned  are  being  activeh"  develojoed  and 
the  sea-borne  trade  thus  laboriously  created,  will  doubt- 
less increase  very  much  in  the  near  future. 

Overhnid  Trade. — The  overland  trade  of  Siam  with 
foreign  countries  is  small  and  increases  very  sIowIa^  or 
not  at  all.  It  is  (*arried  on  with  Rurma  on  the  east 
and  with  the  British  Shan  States  and  French  Territory 
on  the  north.  There  is  practically  no  trade  across  the 
eastern  frontier.  The  total  value  of  ex])orts  and  imports 
together  amounts  to  some  £40(.),()(J()  yearly,  of  wliicli 
amount  teak,  floated  down  the  Salwin  from  Xorthern 
Siam  to  Moulniein  in  Burma,  contributes  about  one 
(juarter.  Siam  exports  teak  ri((  Moulniein  to  the  extent 
of  about  20,()00  tons  a year,  or  nearly  one  fourth  part  of 
tlie  total  annual  export  of  this  article. 

The  other  exports  are  chiefly  cattle,  silk-goods,  and 
treasure.  The  imports  overland  are  almost  entirely 
Kurojiean  goods  brought  from  Burma  for  sale  in 
Xorthern  Siam.  Most  of  this  import  trade  is  in  the 
hands  of  regular  merchants  having  houses  at  Cliieng 


398 


SIAM 


Mai  or  some  other  centre,  but  a good  deal  is  also  done 
by  gangs  of  Shan  and  Burmese  pedlars,  who  perambulate 
the  country  from  end  to  end,  carrying  packs  of  cotton 
goods  and  the  usual  hawkers’  assortment  of  odds  and 
ends,  replenishing  their  stock  from  time  to  time  at 
Moulmein  or  Rangoon.  A few  Chinese  mule  caraA-ans 
occasionally  find  their  way  as  far  soutli  as  Siam  passing 
through  the  French  provinces  of  Sipsong  Fauna  and 
Mong  Sing.  They  bring  with  them  silks  and  brocade, 
furs,  copper  pots,  dried  persimmons,  Avalnuts,  imitation 
jade  ornaments,  and  Chinese  notions  of  various  sorts. 
They  liaA^e  also  lately  imported  a certain  amount  of  rubber 
collected  from  the  hill  tribes  Avith  AAdiom  they  have  been 
in  contact  en  route,  and  this  they  dispose  of  to  the 
merchants  of  Chieng  Mai.  The  rul)ber  is  probably 
of  the  description  known  as  Rambong  in  the  trade, 
that  is.  the  produce  of  the  Ficus  elastica.  It  is  of 
fairly  good  cpiality  for  Rambong,  but  the  quantity  is 
small  and  is  not  likely  to  increase  \ery  much.  It  is  prob- 
able that  Avith  the  penetration  of  the  railAA^ay  to  the  chief 
towns  of  Northern  Siam,  the  OAmrland  trade  Avith  Burma 
and  China  Avill  at  last  disajjpear,  for  though  teak  Avill 
still  be  exported  to  Moulmein,  the  AAmnts  of  the  people 
of  the  interior  so  far  as  European  goods  are  concerned 
Avill  then  be  much  more  cheaply  supplied  from  Bangkok. 
At  present  the  freight  on  goods  passing  up  river  from 
Central  to  Northern  Siam  is  quite  prohibitive. 

Customs. — One  of  the  principal  obstacles  encountered 
])y  Europeans  trading  AAntli  Siam  in  days  before  the 
existence  of  treaties  Avas  the  excessiAm  delay  caused  by 
l)rocrastinations  of  the  officers  charged  Avith  the  control  of 
sliipping  and  the  collection  of  customs.  It  Avas  ap- 
])arently  the  rule  to  prevent  a vessel  from  unloading 
not  only  until  after  the  legalised  customs  dues  had  been 
])aid,  but  until  as  much  of  the  cargo  had  been  given 
u])  in  illegal  fees  and  in  bribery  as  could  possibly  be 


COMMERCE  AND  TRADE 


899 


extorted.  Even  tlie  most  subordinate  officers  and 
attendants  liad  to  be  Avell  considered  before  the  nnlia})py 
merchant  Avas  permitted  to  dispose  of  his  AAVires. 
BoAvring  records  the  saying  of  a AAutty  Frencli  priest 
that  ‘ shi])S  trading  to  iffingkok  shonld  bring  three 
cargoes,  one  of  ])resents  for  those  in  high  places,  one 
for  bribes  to  the  customs  officers  and  one  for  purposes 
of  trade.’  This  peculiar  state  of  affairs  came  to  an  end 
in  the  reign  of  King  Mongkut  Avho,  as  has  already  been 
intimated,  shoAA’^ed  as  much  encouragement  to  European 
merchants  as  his  pi'edecessor  had  done  the  reA^erse. 
The  treaties  made  in  this  reign  secured  the  establish- 
ment of  a properly  organised  Customs  Department  and 
the  reasonable  treatment  of  merchant  shijAs  of  eA^ery 
nationality,  and  fixed  the  import  and  export  duties  at 
rates  either  ad  valorem  or  commensural)le  Avith  the  then 
Auilue  of  the  goods  concerned. 

A certain  number  of  articles  of  export  AAdiich  A\^ere 
subject  to  inland  transit  duties  at  the  time  AAdien  the 
treaties  AA-ere  made,  AA^ere  exempted  from  the  liability  to 
export  duty  in  consideration  of  such  transit  dues.  The 
articles  so  taxed  AA^ere  A^ery  numerous  lAut  mostly  of  small 
importance  and  as  it  AA^as  found  that  the  collection  of 
transit  duties  on  these  Avas  not  ])roductive  of  much 
revenue,  AAdiile  it  aaus  a source  of  considerable  vexation 
to  the  tax-payers,  a decree  aavts  made  a feAv  years  ago 
exempting  from  such  duties  a large  number  of  the 
articles  AAdiich  can,  in  consequence,  noAv  be  exported 
free  of  all  taxation. 

i\Iore  than  fifty  years  have  elapsed  since  the  exj)ort 
and  import  duties  Avere  fixed  by  treaty  and  the  incidence 
of  the  rates,  A\diich  at  that  time  ap])eared  fair  and  equit- 
able, has  naturally  altered  considerably  A\dth  the  changes 
Avhich  time  has  brought  in  the  values  of  commodities 
and  in  the  relative  importance  of  the  customs  and  the 
other  sources  of  revenue.  The  alteration  has  all  been 


400 


SIAM 


to  the  disadvantage  of  the  government  and  to  the  benefit 
of  the  merchant,  and  had  the  rates  not  been  so  fixed  by 
treaty,  there  can  be  no  donbt  bnt  that  the  government 
would  have  re-arranged  them  long  ere  now,  and  that 
rightly,  in  order  to  maintain  that  relation  to  surrounding 
conditions  and  values  Avhich  was  originally  aimed  at. 

Only  by  revision  of  the  treaties,  how’-ever,  could  such 
re-arrangement  be  made  and  revision  of  the  treaties  was 
until  lately  impossible  in  this  respect,  so  that  the 
government,  in  view^  of  a regular  rise  in  the  value  of  all 
exports,  had  for  many  years  to  be  content  with  custom 
dues  of  constantly  decreasing  proj)ortion  both  to  the 
value  of  exports  and  to  the  total  revenue  of  the  kingdom. 
If  the  case  of  rice  alone  be  considered  it  will  be  found 
that  the  price  of  the  article  has  risen  so  much  during  the 
last  fifty  years  that  if  the  export  duty  originally  fixed  at 
four  ticals  per  hwien  (or  about  8 per  cent,  ad  valorem) 
had  been  increased  to  preserve  a constant  ad  valorem 
incidence,  the  customs  revenue  now  available  from  that 
article  would  be  about  £45(),()00  a year  instead  of  the 
actual  ,£ir)0,0()0.  The  fixed  tariff  allows  a duty  on  all 
taxable  im])orts  of  3 per  (*ent.  ad  valorem  and  this  with 
the  scheduled  export  duties  results  in  a total  custom 
]-evenue  of  about  £400,000  a year  or  one-tenth  of  the 
revenue  of  the  State.  If  it  be  rememl)ered  that  in  Great 
Britain,  a so-called  Free  Trade  Countr.y,  the  Customs 
produce  more  than  a fifth  of  the  total  revenue,  the  unduly 
small  ]>ro]:)ortion  of  the  customs  of  Siam  to  her  total 
income  is  at  once  apparent.  By  the  terms  of  the  Franco- 
Siamese  ti-eaty  of  H)07,  and  the  Anglo-Siarnese  treaty  of 
1901)  the  former  treaty  provisions  regarding  customs, 
duties  and  general  taxation  have  all  been  sw^ept  into 
limbo  so  far  as  French  and  I British  subjects  are  concerned, 
and  doubtless  arrangements  will  before  long  be  made 
wdth  the  remaining  Powders,  as  the  result  of  which  the 
government  w411  Ire  at  liberty  to  effect  such  fiscal  re- 


COMMUNICATIONS 


401 


organisation  as  will  provide  for  an  income  from  customs 
sufficient  to  jiistif}^  the  abolition  of  some  other  sources  of 
revenue,  Avhich  are  out  of  place  in  a progressive  admini- 
stration or  which  press  niidnly  upon  the  people. 

That  His  Majesty  the  late  King  fully  realised  the 
importance  of  trade  to  the  welfare  of  Siam,  and  con- 
sistently encouraged  commerce  during  his  long  and 
wise  reign,  even  more  than  his  august  father  had  done 
before  him,  the  extraordinary  recent  development  of  the 
seaborne  trade  eloquently  testifies,  as  do  the  following- 
words  spoken  in  1907  in  a speech  made  by  His  Majesty 
at  a banquet  given  to  the  leaders  of  the  foreign  com- 
mercial commimity  of  Bangkok.  His  Majesty  said : 

‘ The  pioneers  of  Siamese  commerce  have  in  truth  been 
the  merchants  of  foreign  countries,  owing  to  intercourse 
with  vdioin,  as  we  see  to  onr  great  satisfaction,  the  spirit 
of  commerce  is  now  at  last  avrakening  in  onr  own  people. 
It  is  highly  beneficial  to  the  commerce  of  onr  country  that 
the  merchants  of  all  nations  should  meet  and  trade  here, 
alike  to  their  own  advantage  and  to  that  of  onr  State. 
We  fully  appreciate  the  great  advance  of  the  commerce 
of  Siam  and,  knowing  that  there  is  no  more  important 
factor  in  promoting  tlie  material  j^rogress  and  welfare  of 
a country  than  successful  commerce,  we  have  ahvays  had 
deeply  at  heart  the  encouragement  of  trade  within  onr 
dominions.’ 


PART  IV  {Continued) 

Communications  and  Transport 

Watericays  and  Boats. — The  physical  nature  of 
Central  Siam  is  such  that  for  several  months  of  each 
year  almost  the  whole  of  it  is  covered  with  water,  varying 
in  depth  from  a few  inches  to  eight  or  ten  feet,  while 
the  even  flatness  and  low  level  of  this  region  has  caused 


402 


SIAM 


the  rivers  which  flow  across  it  to  divide  into  innumerable 
channels,  and  creeks  subject  to  strong  tidal  influence, 
which  therefore  alternate  between  extreme  sluggish- 
ness and  great  rapidity  of  flow. 

The  people  of  this  district,  having  so  much  water 
about  them,  have  naturally  acquired  habits  which  may 
rightly  be  termed  aquatic  and,  in  the  total  absence  of 
roads,  the  making  and  maintenance  of  which,  under  the 
conditions  there  prevailing,  would  always  be  matters  of 
much  difficulty  and  expense,  have  long  been  accustomed 
to  use  the  water  as  their  principal  means  of  traffic  and 
communication. 

Successive  rulers  of  the  country  who  have  given  their 
attention  to  the  improvement  of  communications,  have 
therefore  sought  to  improve  existing  waterways  and  to 
open  new  ones  rather  than  to  make  roads  and  there  has 
been  created  by  degrees  a very  complete  system  of 
canals  connecting  the  various  rivers  and  creeks  and 
giving  access  from  the  main  river  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  capital,  to  all  parts  of  the  rich  low-lying  country 
to  the  north,  east  and  west  of  it. 

Natural  and  artificial  water-courses  thus  forming  the 
highways  it  follows  that  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
are  found  living  upon  the  banks  of  such.  The  houses 
ciusier  beneath  the  shade  of  tall  bamboos  or  taller 
palm-trees  at  the  edges  of  rivers,  creeks  and  canals  and 
give  something  of  the  impression  of  long,  continuous 
villages  stretching  almost  without  interruption  from 
town  to  town.  Behind  the  houses  lie  the  ojDen  rice-lands 
with  usually  at  the  other  side  of  these  a great  expanse 
of  reeds  and  grass  jungle,  extending  to  the  horizon  or 
to  the  line  of  another  water-course,  with  its  comple- 
mentary cultivated  lands  and  riparian  villages.  The 
provincial  toAvns  are  simply  larger  clusters  of  houses 
standing  in  serried  rows  on  the  banks  of  a maze  of  water- 
ways, or  floating  on  pontoons  upon  the  water  itself. 


COMMUNICATIONS 


403 


while  ill  Bangkok,  the  innumerable  canals  still  exist  on 
which  the  houses  stood  in  the  not  very  remote  days  before 
streets  had  been  made,  and  before  the  new  city  of 
masonry  houses  began  to  replace  the  intricate  confusion 
of  thatched  lints  and  wooden  mansions  which,  in  the  last 
century,  it  ivas  the  fashion  to  call  the  Venice  of  the  East. 

The  rivers  and  canals  are  the  arteries  of  nearly  all 
the  traffic  of  the  country  and  are  continnally  thronged 
with  innnmerable  boats  and  iTSsels  of  many  descriptions. 
Notwithstanding  the  recently  constructed  railways,  nine- 
tenths  of  the  xirodnce  of  the  country  is  carried  by  water 
to  the  markets,  while  the  various  journeys  and  errands 
which  take  people  abroad  upon  the  roads  in  the  other 
countries,  are  here  all  performed  in  boats.  The  Siamese 
children  learn  to  swim  almost  before  they  can  walk  and 
the  whole  population  is  familiar  from  earliest  youth  vdth 
the  management  of  boats  of  all  kinds.  Indeed  it  would 
appear  that  the  physique  of  the  nation  has  undergone 
certain  modifications  in  consequence  of  the  large  portion 
of  existence  vdiich  has  been  passed  by  countless  genera- 
tions in  rowing,  paddling,  and  sitting  in  boats,  for  it  is 
a matter  of  common  remark  that  the  shoulders  of  the 
vSiamese  women  are  squarer  and  stronger  than  is  usual 
in  other  lands,  while  in  both  sexes  a tendency  is  notice- 
able towards  development  of  the  arms  ont  of  proportion 
to  the  somewhat  attenuated  lower  limbs. 

Rowing  as  practised  in  Europe  is  not  a pojmlar  form 
of  boat  propulsion  in  Siam  and  is  only  jn’actised  in  the 
Rda  Xua  or  ‘ Boats  of  the  North  ’ which  are  rowed 
dovm,  and  poled  iqi,  stream.  The  implements  generally 
used  are  the  paddle,  Pai,  and  a form  of  sweep  called 
Cheoic.  The  paddle  is  used  for  small  canoes  thronghont 
Central  Siam,  and  for  boats  of  all  kinds  by  the  Malays 
of  Southern  Siam.  The  Siamese  paddle  is  long  and 
slender  and  has  a sqnare-ended  blade,  that  of  the  ilalay 
is  shorter,  has  a cross-piece  for  handle  and  a wide  sharp- 


404 


SIAM 


pointed  blade  shaped  like  an  exaggerated  spear-liead. 
Both  races  exhibit  a deftness  in  the  use  of  this  implement 
only  to  be  expected  from  people  a great  part  of  whose 
lives  are  passed  upon  the  water.  The  manoeuvring 
of  a Siamese  royal  barge  manned  by  a hundred 
paddlers,  and  the  handling  of  a great  Malay  canoe  by 
its  crew  of  thirty  stalwart  fishermen,  are  both,  in  their 
different  ways,  perfect  exhibitions  of  supple  strength 
and  concerted  action.  The  Glieow  is  common  to 
Kambodia  and  Toncpiin  (as  well  as  to  Siam)  but  is  not 
used  in  Burma,  and  nothing  quite  like  it  is  seen  outside 
Further  India  though  the  crossed  sweeps  of  the  common 
Chinese  ‘ sampan  ’ and  the  implement  of  the  Venetian 
gondolier  are  other  variations  of  the  same  idea.  It  is 
a long  flexible  sweep  with  a cross-piece  at  the  handle 
end  and  its  fulcrum  is  a stout  stanchion  rising  some 
eighteen  inches  above  the  edge  of  the  boat,  to  which  it 
is  attached  by  a figure-of-eight  grommet  of  cotton  twist. 
Tho  oj^erator  stands  erect  in  the  boat  facing  the  bow 
a]id  works  the  sweejD  with  a long  pushing  stroke  ending 
with  a jerk.  A single  sweep  used  for  some  boats  of  the 
smaller  and  lighter  kind,  gives  a most  powerful  impetus 
and  in  the  hands  of  an  expert  becomes  also  a steering 
apparatus  of  peculiar  accuracy. 

There  are  few  j)eople  in  Siam  who  do  not  understand 
and  practise  the  art  of  sailing  in  some  form  or  another, 
for  though  the  days  of  the  old  square-rigged  merchant 
sliips  have  long  x^ast  away  and  the  oj)en  seas  of  China 
and  India  no  longer  know  the  Siamese  sailor,  the  coast- 
hig  trade  in  the  Gulf,  the  fishing  industry  and  travel- 
ing upon  inland  waters  give  ample  ox3j)ortunities  for  the 
exercise  of  this  accomplishment.  Indeed  the  tight  little 
vessels  of  one  sort  or  another,  which  run  in  and  out  of 
all  the  rivers  of  Siam  to  brave  the  treacherous  winds  of 
the  Gulf,  I)reed  a sailor  quite  as  skilful  and  as  daring: 
as  may  be  found  elsewhere. 


kaja’s  boat  on  the  pataxi  river. 


A FULLY- LADEN  RICE-BOAT.  [Photo  ■.  Lenz. 


THE  SMALLEST  KIND  OF  HOUSE-BOAT  USED  IN  SIAM. 


COMMUNICATIONS 


405 


Apart  altogether  from  the  people  who,  living  in  houses 
at  the  water’s  edge,  go  about  their  daily  avocations  on  the 
water,  a considerable  part  of  the  population  lives 
altogether  in  boats.  In  some  of  the  larger  canals  of 
Bangkok,  large  covered  boats  of  good  capacity  are  always 
to  be  seen  moored  close  together  in  serried  rows,  in  each 
of  which  the  owner  with  his  wife  and  family,  lives 
permanently  or  for  long  periods,  and  on  board  of  which 
cooking  and  other  ordinary  household  occupations  are 
conducted  in  full  view  of  the  passer-by.  These  are  for 
the  most  part  rice-boats  from  the  interior  which,  having 
discharged  a cargo  at  some  mill,  are  awaiting  an 
opportunity  to  return  upstream,  possibly  with  a load  of 
merchandise  for  sale  to  the  country  folk.  Others  which 
are  furnished  as  shops,  the  interior  being  fitted  with 
pigeon-holes  for  the  reception  of  rolls  of  cloth,  skeins  of 
yarn,  hardware  and  all  manner  of  im])orted  goods,  have 
come  in  to  the  metropolis  to  restock.  Others  again,  may 
be  np  from  the  coast  witli  cargos  of  fish,  of  firewood 
obtained  from  the  swamps  along  the  shore,  of  Chak  or 
Xipah  roofing- thatch  or  of  salt.  These  boats  are  of 
all  sizes  and  of  many  distinct  types.  Tlie  most  common 
perhaps  is  the  Riia  Kao  or  ‘ rice-boat,’  a bulky  double- 
ended  vessel,  broad  of  beam  and  deep  of  draught, 
strongly  built  of  linge  ])lanks  of  teak  or  Mai  Takien, 
and  covered  in  amid-ships  Avith  a neat  dome-sliajied 
structure  of  plaited  bamlAOo  strips,  caulked  and  varnished 
and  made  C[iiite  Aveather-proof.  The  boAv  and  the  stern 
are  decked  and  open  to  the  air  but  liaA-e  removalfie 
coverings  AAdiich  can  be  draivn  over  them  at  Avill.  A 
foot-board  skirts  the  sides,  connecting  the  fore  and  aft 
parts  and  proAuding  a foot-hold  for  jioling  AAdiich  is 
necessary  in  some  AA^aters.  The  boats  are  coated  Avitli 
deep  red-broAvn  Avarnish,  the  decks  are  liighh'  ]iolished 
from  the  friction  of  bare  feet  and  from  lieing  continually 
sat  upon,  and  the  AAdiole  effect  is  one  of  neatness  and 


406 


SIAM 


cleanliness.  The  elaborate  carving  and  other  ornament 
with  which  the  rice-boats  of  Burma  are  embellished  is 
almost  entirely  absent.  The  boats  have  a single  re- 
moveable  mast  forward  of  the  covered  waist,  two  or  more 
stanchions  on  which  long  sweeps  are  worked,  and  are 
steered  by  a rudder  hanging  upon  hinges.  The  Bua 
Bet  is  a boat  somewhat  similar  to  the  Bila  Kao  but 
longer,  of  less  beam  and  altogether  more  graceful.  It 
is  vei'3"  commonly  used  on  the  rivers  and  is  also  built 
for  sea-going.  The  Bua  Kua,  or  ‘ boat  of  the  north,’  is  of 
altogether  different  construction . Built  for  traffic  on  the 
northern  rivers  where  the  current  is  rapid  and  where 
rocks  and  shallows  are  frequent,  it  is  much  longer  and 
of  much  less  beam  than  the  others  and  has  a draught  of 
only  a few  inches.  The  bow  is  low  and  only  slightly 
turned  up,  while  the  stern  curves  up  into  a great  flat  tail 
some  eight  feet  high,  the  last  x^art  of  which  is  peiqDendi- 
cular.  Amid-shix^s  it  is  closed  in  like  the  Bila  Kao 
and  the  afterpart  is  also  enclosed  with  a roof  and  walls 
and  makes  a room  in  which  the  steersman  sits  and 
where  his  family  usually  liA^es.  The  fore-x^art,  which  is 
narrow,  is  htted  with  stanchions  for  the  short  oars  with 
which  the  boat  is  rowed  down  stream  and  is  used,  to- 
gether with  the  broad  side  foot-boards,  as  the  walk  of 
the  crew  when  x'^oling  ux3  stream.  Sweex^s  and  masts  are 
absent  and  steering  is  effected  by  means  of  a long  broad- 
l)laded  oar  x^assed  through  a hole  in  the  after-room,  and 
projecting  fbe  u])turned  tail  and  far  out  astern. 

The  Bila  Chalom  conies  from  the  coast  where  it  is 
considered  one  of  the  best  boats  for  sea-fishing.  It  is 
a double  ender  with  very  iq^right  bow  and  stern-x:»ost, 
usually  decked  in  fore  and  aft,  and  of  good  beam.  It  is 
sometimes  covered  in  amid-sliix)s  with  the  oauI  roof  of 
matting  common  to  other  boats,  but  this  is  not  always 
the  case.  It  is  xu'oxielled  by  four  sweex^s  and  carries  a 
removalile  mast  and  a large  square-sail  with  which  it 


COMMUNICATIONS 


407 


makes  astonisliingi}"  good  sailing,  and  is  peculiar  in 
having  two  detachable  rudders  one  on  each  side  of  the 
stern-post,  only  that  one  wdiich  is  on  the  same  side  as 
the  wind  being  used,  the  other  being  carried  cocked  njr 
on  end  above  the  stern.  There  is  always  a niiiltitiide  of 
cpieer-looking  sailing-craft  anchored  in  the  main  river 
in  the  reach  immediately  above  that  which  forms  the 
Port  at  Bangkok.  Here  are  Malay  schooners,  Chinese 
junks,  pen ja jap  (in  Siamese,  Rila  Yayap),  small  two- 
masted  Malay  fjoats,  and  big  sea-going  Rila  Pet.  The 
schooners  are  graceful  vessels  built  on  European  lines, 
with  masts  well  raked  l3ack  and  carrying  the  sails  common 
everywhere  to  boats  of  this  class.  The  junks  are  of  the 
usual  build  of  their  type,  rigged  with  a main-mast  set 
amid-ships  and  a fore-mast  ]3lanted  right  in  the  bows 
and  raked  far  forward,  and  carrying  two  huge  ribbed 
scpiare-sails.  The  Rda  Yayap  are  boats  of  slendei 
build,  with  the  stern  projecting  over  and  behind 
the  rudder  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  vessel,  and 
carrying  a deck-house  in  which  the  crew  eat  and  sleep. 
A wide  staging  projects  on  either  side  of  the  bow  giving 
the  fore-deck  a scpiare  shape.  All  these  vessels  are 
j Link-rigged.  The  Rda  Pet  also  carry  main  and  fore-masts 
but  have  the  mainsail  well  dipjied  and  very  liigh  peaked, 
and  the  fore-sail  very  small  and  fulfilling  no  more  than 
the  object  for  which  the  fore-sails  were  apparently 
originally  intended,  that  is  steadying  the  sliip  and 
assisting  the  steering.  Further  down  the  river  is  the 
ancliorage  of  the  wooden  sailing  lighters  which  are  a 
feature  of  the  Port  of  Bangkok,  l)ut  wliicli  are  lieing 
gradually  supplanted  by  steam  lighters  built  of  steel. 
The  wooden  lighters  are  cumbersome,  tub-shaped  con- 
trivances of  al)out  2t)()  tons  displacement,  junk-rigged 
and  manned  exclusively  by  Chinamen.  Their  sailing  is 
singTilarly  haphazard  and  erratic,  they  habitually  ignore 
all  the  rules  of  the  Port  and  the  masters  of  the  steamers 


408 


SIAM 


frequenting  Bangkok  would  gladly  see  the  last  of  them 
consigned  to  the  shiphreaker. 

In  and  out  among  the  larger  craft  a host  of  small 
boats  comprising  many  types  is  constantly  on  the  move. 
Almost  before  the  dawn  monks  appear  paddling  tiny 
canoes  from  house  to  house  and  from  boat  to  boat,  with 
the  begging-bowd  deposited  before  them  read}^  to  receive 
the  alms  of  merit-makers.  As  the  sun  rises  above  the 
morning  mists,  the  boats  of  the  market-gardeners  begin 
to  appear  ‘ cheowed  ’ by  two  or  four  women  and  carrying 
a heap  of  fruit  and  vegetables  in  the  waist.  About  the 
same  time,  in  Bangkok  and  other  towns  not  far  from  the 
sea,  the  Riia  Chalom  of  the  fishermen  appear,  sailing 
like  a flock  of  birds  vdien  the  wind  is  good,  and  when 
not,  plunging  along  to  the  sweep-strokes  of  four  sturdy 
oarsmen.  Sellers  of  pork,  shell-fish,  sweetmeats,  and 
hot  coffee,  turn  out  in  their  little  canoes  and  go  thread- 
ing in  and  out  of  the  throng  calling  their  wares. 
Licensed  Rita  Chang  or  hire-boats  swing  along  on 
their  single  long  sweep,  manoeuvred  with  surprising 
skill  by  the  boatman  standing  on  the  raised  stern. 
These  make  their  profits  chiefly  by  short  journeys, 
ferrying  over  the  river  or  carrying  women  to  and  from 
the  markets  where  the  day’s  provisions  are  bought,  and 
clustering  round  the  landing  stages,  yet  always  within 
hail  of  the  would-be  passenger.  The  private  Riia  Clieoio 
of  the  upper  classes  are  a feature  of  eveiy  tovm  and  in 
Bangkok  are  very  numerous.  They  have  a little  house 
amidships  in  which  the  passengers  sit,  and  are  propelled 
by  two  or  four  men  usually  dressed  in  neat  sailor 
costume.  Many  of  them  are  highly  ornamented  and 
upholstered  and  have  windows  fitted  with  curtain  blinds. 

Though  Bangkok  is  now  a city  of  bridges  and  streets, 
there  are  many  houses  of  the  well-to-do  opening 
direct  upon  the  canals  or  the  river,  whence  they  are 
approached  by  dainty  landing  stages.  The  occupants 


A LORCHA  OR  CARGO  JiOAT,  BANGKOK.  [Phoio  ■.  Laiz. 


SOME  yUEER  BOATS  OX  THE  AIIHIKOXG  RIVER. 


FRUIT-SELLERS  BOATS  ON  THE  MENAM. 


COMMUNICATIONS 


409 


of  these  still  use  the  Rua  Clieow  which  to  some  extent 
holds  its  own  against  carriages  and  motor  cars  as  a 
means  of  getting  about  the  town.  In  the  proAuncial 
centres  they  are  still  the  only  conveyance  of  the  upper 
classes.  The  house-boat,  knovm  to  the  Siamese  as  Rila 
Pie-nic  or  ‘Picnic-boat,’  is  an  exaggerated  Rila  Cheoio, 
the  house  amidships  fitted  with  sleeping  accommodation, 
and  the  fore  and  aft  decks  roofed  with  awnings.  It  is 
used  for  long  journeys  but,  though  the  acme  of  comfort 
for  travelling,  is  heavy  and  unmanageable  unless  towed 
])y  a steam  launch.  It  is  many  years  since  the  steam 
launch  became  popular  in  Siam.  The  waters  of  Bangkok 
are  daily  ploughed  by  many  hundreds  of  them,  every 
business  firm  and  not  a few  private  individuals  main- 
taining one  or  more.  The  launches  of  the  Royal  Nav}- 
number  over  a hundred  and  several  Inland  Transport 
companies  supply  daily  services  between  the  capital  and 
many  of  the  provincial  towns.  In  the  boats  of  these 
latter  motor  engines  are  now  displacing  steam,  and 
indeed  motor  boats  are  becoming  very  popular  with  all 
classes.  The  king  and  other  wealthy  persons  ovui  many 
of  the  best  and  most  modern  types,  and  the  annual  races 
for  motor  boats  which  were  instituted  a few  years  ago 
arouse  the  greatest  interest  amongst  all  classes.  Steam 
tOAving  on  the  riA^er  aaus  an  immenselA"  profitable 
business  before  competition  cut  doAAUi  prices  and  eA-^en 
noAv  it  is  still  remuneratiA^e.  EA^eiy  morning  poAA^erful 
tugs  depart  upstream  from  Bangkok  toAAung  empty 
rice-boats  and  other  craft,  often  to  the  number  of  a 
hundred  or  more  on  one  rope  and,  running  at  the  rate 
of  some  four  miles  an  hour,  ascend  the  main  riA^er  for 
seA^enty  or  eighty  miles,  dropx^ing  at  each  canal  entrance 
a group  of  boats  AAdiich,  hoisting  sail,  are  soon  s]>read 
out  in  a line  of  AAdiite  AAungs,  gliding  across  the  flat 
landscape  toAA^ards  the  more  distant  fields  of  the  rice- 
groAA'ers.  EA^ery  eA^ening  similar  half-mile-long  trains 


410 


SIAM 


arrive  from  up  comiti\y  but  these  are  all  loaded  down  to 
the  gunwale  with  rice.  All  vessels,  whether  inland  or 
sea-going,  which  frequent  Bangkok,  are  registered  there, 
and  the  number  thus  enumerated  at  present  exceeds 
160,000.  The  boats  of  the  inland  waters  and  coasts  of 
Southern  Siam  differ  in  many  respects  from  those  of  the 
central  districts.  The  rice-boat  and  the  Rua  Pet  are 
replaced  in  the  rivers  by  the  craft  called  in  Malay 
Prahu  Daud,  and  Praliu  Kepala  Belalang,  shallow-draft, 
broad-bottomed  boats,  with  houses  amidships  constructed 
of  plain  plank  walls  and  thatched  roof,  and  having  the 
floor  below  water-level.  The  former  has  a broad  square 
deck  carried  out  far  beyond  the  bow,  and  tilted  high 
into  the  air  to  form  a steep  inclined  plane  down  which 
the  boatmen  walk  when  poling.  The  latter  is  without 
the  inclined  poling  deck,  has  a sharp  prow,  somewhat 
resembling  the  head  of  the  grasshopper  from  which  the 
l)oat  takes  its  name,  and  is  usually  paddled.  The 
Praliu  Daud  has  a carrying  capacity  of  from  two 
to  ten  tons  of  paddy  and  the  ‘ grashopper-head  ’ averages 
a good  deal  smaller.  The  Rila  Chalom  is  used  on  the 
coast  as  far  south  as  Bandon  and  the  sea-going  Rua  Pet 
as  far  as  Singora.  The  equivalents  further  south,  in 
the  Malay  provinces,  are  the  Penjajap  or  Ya-Yap  and 
the  Payoncj  already  mentioned,  holek  of  two  kinds  and 
Sagor.  The  Payong  is  the  original  Prahu  of  the  Malay 
])irates,  the  blood-stained  craft  of  writers  of  ‘ Fiction  for 
Boys,’  gliding  with  its  crew  of  desj:»erate  savages  over 
Avaters  fitfully  lit  by  the  lurid  glare  from  burning  ships, 
and  in  fancy  chased  and  captured  by  every  youthful 
reader  but,  in  fact,  long  ago  reduced  to  the  humble  role 
of  fishing  or  cargo  boat.  The  kolek,  an  open  boat  with 
u])right  stem  and  stern  and  long  straight  gunwale,  is 
the  ordinary  seining  boat  of  the  east  coast  of  Southern 
Siam.  The  kolek  linchong  is  one  of  the  most  graceful 
vessels  in  the  world  ; its  keel  is  a perfect  curve  rising 


COMMUNICATIONS 


411 


high  out  of  the  water  into  tapering  points  fore  and  aft, 
thus  giving  the  craft  the  appearance  of  a crescent  moon 
resting  lightly  on  the  water.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  line 
and  small  net-fishing  and,  with  its  Ingsail  and  foresail 
supported  on  the  most  slender  of  masts,  is  a very  fast 
sailer  and  a good  sea-hoat.  The  Sagor  on  the  contrary 
is  a singularly  ungraceful  and  clumsy-looking  craft, 
consisting  of  a dug-out  hull  with  a high  built-up  free 
board,  cut  off  scpiare  at  the  bow  and  stern. 

In  his  well-known  work  Five  Years  in  Siam  and 
elsewhere,  Warington  Smyth  has  analysed  with  tlie 
sympathy  and  insight  of  an  expert,  the  Aurtues  and 
failings,  the  achieA^ements  and  shortcomings  of  the 
sailors  of  Siam,  and  has  described  Avith  the  pen  of  an 
enthusiast  the  build,  rig,  and  qualities  generally  of  the 
vessels  in  Avhicli  the  Avater  traffic  of  the  country  is 
carried  on. 

Shiijping  Lines. — The  tAvent.y  miles  or  so  of  the  river 
Llenam  Chao  Phaya,  Avhicli  separate  the  port  of  Bangkok 
from  the  sea,  form  an  excellent  l)road  and  deep  AAuter- 
way  for  steamers  l)ut  a Avell  defined  bar  at  the  river- 
mouth  forbids  tlie  entrance  of  more  than  tAvelve  and  a 
half  feet  draught.  Proposals  for  deepening  the  channels 
through  the  bar  liaA^e  frequently  been  placed  before  the 
Government,  but  hitherto  none  have  been  adopted,  and- 
ineaiiAvhile  A^essels  frequenting  the  poi’t  usually  discharge 
a part  of  their  cargo  in  the  roads  of  Sichang,  formed  by 
an  island  group  a foAv  miles  south-east  of  the  river 
mouth,  and  on  leaAung  take  up  the  greater  part  of 
their  fresh  cargo  there.  It  is  for  this  reason  tliat  the 
fleet  of  Bangkok  lighters  exists  and  it  seems  iiossible 
that  the  profits  of  the  lightering  business  may  be  in  a 
measure  responsible  for  the  non-dredging  of  the  bar. 
There  are  tAA'o  channels  by  Avhich  A*essels  of  tAA^eh^e  and 
a half  feet  draught  can  cross  at  high  tide,  the  Avestern 
of  AA'hich  is  the  more  generally  used.  This  AA^oidd 


412 


SIAM 


appear  to  liave  deepened  by  some  eighteen  inches 
during  the  last  hundred  years  as  the  records  of  mariners 
at  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  show  that  ships  of 
eleven  feet  draught  then  had  great  difficulty  in  warping 
over  the  bar  even  with  the  tide  at  its  best.  The  fairway 
is  marked  by  three  lightships  which  show  red  lights  at 
night.  A pilot  brig  is  anchored  just  outside  the  bar 
and  the  passage,  though  tortuous,  is  fairly  constant  and 
is  buoyed.  As  a consequence  of  the  presence  of  the 
bar  the  Bangkok  steamers  are  small,  and  many  of  them 
have  been  specially  constructed  with  Avide  beam  and 
flat  bottom  for  the  negotiation  of  this  obstacle.  Ships 
of  more  than  2000  tons  are  seldom  seen  in  the  port,  the 
feAv  large  vessels  AAdiich  annually  take  rice  direct  to 
Europe  loading  the  Avhole  of  their  cargo  in  the  roads 
outside  the  bar.  The  regular  shipping  is  made  up  of 
the  fleets  of  the  local  branch  of  the  North  German  Lloyd 
and  of  the  Rickmers  Line,  of  the  Danish  East  Asiatic 
Company,  Ltd.,  the  Siam  Steam  NaAugation  Company, 
Ltd.,  Avith  a fleet  of  seA^^en  small  but  neAv  and  AA^ell-found 
vessels,  the  Siam  Coast  Navigation  Company  and  a 
number  of  NorAvegian  and  British  vessels  0A\med  or 
chartered  by  the  different  mercantile  firms.  Most  of 
the  steamers  have  passenger  accommodation  and  one, 
AAdiich  makes  a fortnightly  vo^^age  to  Singapore  and 
back,  is  devoted  entirely  to  passenger  traffic.  The 
steamers  of  the  Koh  Guan  ConnDany  Avhich  pl}^  betAveen 
Rangoon  and  Penang  have  for  many  years  been  in  the 
habit  of  calling  at  the  ports  and  toAvns  on  the  Avest 
coast  of  Southern  Siam.  The  Eastern  Shipping 
Company,  Ltd.,  a Penang  concern,  maintains  a regular 
service  of  sea-going  launches  of  very  ancient  construction 
and  almost  inconceivable  filthiness,  Avith  the  coast  toAvns 
of  Satun,  Palean,  and  a fcAV  places  further  north.  The 
ra})id  groAvth  of  trade  on  this  coast  within  the  last  tAvo 
or  three  years  has  attracted  the  attention  of  Singapore 


COMMUNIC  ATI  ONS 


413 


shipping  conii^anies  and  the  Straits  Steamship  Compaii}^ 
Ltd.,  probably  the  most  abl}^  managed  and  most 
prosperous  shipping  concern  located  in  this  part  of  the 
world,  is  making  an  effort  to  secure  a share  of  the  traffic 
between  Singapore,  Penang  and  the  Siamese  coast 
towns,  more  especially"  Trang,  the  terminus  of  the  trade 
routes  across  the  peninsnla  and  the  centre  of  a growing 
tin-mining  industry. 

Roads. — Outside  the  town  of  Bangkok  there  are  very 
few  made  roads  anywhere  in  Siam  and  none  at  all  in 
the  central  part.  In  the  capital  itself  less  than  sixty 
years  ago  there  were  no  streets,  the  sole  means  of  com- 
munication being  by  Avater  or  on  elephant  back,  along 
tracks  Avdiich  Avere  soft  mud  Avhen  the  tide  A\"as  out  and 
runnels  of  AA^ater  AAdien  it  was  in.  Of  the  eighty  odd 
miles  of  streets  and  suburban  roads  noAv  in  existence, 
most  haA"e  been  made  AAnthin  the  last  decade.  During 
the  dry' season  the  open  plains  to  the  north  of  Bangkok 
are  eA"eryAAdiere  fit  for  cart  traffic  and  many-  rough  tracks 
are  then  in  use,  AAdiile  on  the  higher  lands  there  are 
AA"ell-knoAvn,  rough  but  serviceable  Avays  AAdiich  are 
practicable  all  the  year  round.  The  OA^erland  trade 
routes  from  Burma  into  Siam,  notably"  those  betAA"een 
Moulmein  and  Raheng  and  between  Mergui  and  the 
AA"estern  shores  of  the  Gulf,  are  of  A-eiy  ancient  establish- 
ment, the  latter,  of  Avhich  the  eastern  terminus  AA’as 
the  city"  of  Pipli  uoav  knoAAui  as  Petchaburi,  being 
the  route  by"  AA"hich  all  trade  from  India  and  Europe 
found  its  AA"ay-  to  Siam  before  the  sea  route  round  the 
peninsula  became  AA"ell  knoAA-n,  AA"hile  the  former  is  the 
main  line  AA"hich  has  been  folloAA"ed  by-  the  Burma  trade 
from  the  earliest  times  doAA"ii  to  the  present.  These  are, 
hoAvever,  merely  jungle  tracks  and  little  has  been  done 
to  remove  their  many-  difficulties  bey"ond  the  occasional 
construction  of  temporary-  Avooden  bridges  by  ])rivate 
makers  of  merit.  In  the  old  days  of  the  Pipli  route,. 


414 


SIAM 


elephants  were  sometimes  used  as  means  of  transport 
and  it  was  on  the  hacks  of  these  animals  that  in  the 
17th  century,  a.d.,  the  first  French  missionaries  to  Siam 
made  their  painful  journey  from  the  port  of  Tenasserim. 
Most  of  the  merchandise,  however,  was  then,  and  still  is, 
carried  by  porters,  the  best  agency  for  negotiating  the 
innumerable  obstacles  of  the  routes.  Before  the  railway 
had  penetrated  to  Korat  on  the  j^latean  of  Eastern  Siam, 
large  numbers  of  pack  bullocks  brought  out  the  produce 
of  that  section  of  the  country,  along  well  defined  routes, 
mostly  converging  on  the  towns  of  Saraburi  a few  miles 
east  of  Ayuthia,  many  large  caravans  of  a hundred  head 
or  more  of  cattle  annually  making  the  journey  down,  and 
returning  with  loads  of  cloth  and  other  foreign 
imports  sent  to  Saraburi  by  water  from  Bangkok, 
Bullock  transport  is  however,  slow  and  unwieldy  and 
inferior  to  any  other  except  perhaps  elephant ; and  it  is 
not  surprising  that  the  old  bullock-paths  are  now  almost 
deserted  in  favour  of  the  railwa}^  which  carries  goods  in 
two  days  from  Korat  direct  to  Bangkok.  Within  the 
last  few  years  the  government  has  begun  to  exhibit  some 
activity  in  the  making  of  roads  in  the  more  distant 
provinces  of  Northern  and  Southern  Siam  where  com- 
munications by  water  are  poor  or  altogether  absent,  and 
where,  for  strategic  or  commercial  reasons,  it  has  become 
desirable  to  open  up  remote  districts  or  where  the  exist- 
ing tracks  and  bridle-paths  have  been  found  to  be 
insufficient  for  the  present  volume  of  traffic.  The 
rising  of  certain  Shan  clans  of  the  North  in  1901,  showed 
liow  next  to  impossible  is  the  adequate  administration 
of  outlying  districts  inhabited  by  unruly  hillmen  in  the 
absence  of  communications,  and  hence  one  consequence 
of  this  unpleasant  incident  has  been  the  construction  of 
new  roads  and  the  improvement  of  such  as  already 
existed,  in  many  parts  of  the  Lao  States.  Of  these  the 
most  noticeable  are  the  military  road  from  Raheng  to 


THROUGH  THE  RICE-FIELDS  BY  ELEPHANT. 


MODERN  ” SIAM.  RAILWAY  TERMINUS,  BANGKOK. 
VIEW  OF  GOODS  YARD  AND  ENGINE  SHEDS. 


COMMUNICATIONS 


415 


Laklion,  110  miles  ; from  Cliieng  Mai  to  Lamplium, 
36  miles  ; from  Chieng  Mai  to  Laklion  80  miles,  and  the 
roads  between  Utaradit,  Pre  and  Nan.  The  fact  that 
motor  cars  are  beginning  to  be  used  in  Northern  Siam 
is  perhaps  the  best  iiroof  of  a general  extension  and 
improvement  of  the  roads  in  that  part.  In  Southern 
Siam  the  roads  connecting  the  chief  towns  of  the  various 
provinces  with  their  outlying  villages  are  all  being 
improved  and  rendered  fit  for  cart  traffic,  while  a trunk- 
road  between  Singora  and  Patani  and  others  connecting 
Siugora,  Patalung  and  Nakhon  Sri  Tammarat  on  the 
east  with  Trang  on  the  west  coast,  in  all  about  240 
miles,  are  now  approaching  completion. 

Raihcays. — About  the  }"ear  1880  the  ambitions  of 
France  in  Further  India  and  her  very  evident  determina- 
tion to  make  a strong  bid  for  the  trade  of  the  eastern 
part  of  that  region  and  of  South-west  China,  created 
alarm  in  the  breasts  of  British  merchants  and  caused 
a certain  amount  of  agitation  in  favour  of  securing  the 
trade  of  the  Shan  and  Lao  States,  Yunnan  and  Siam, 
before  it  should  be  too  late,  by  means  of  railways  con- 
necting those  parts  with  British  Burma  and  constructed 
with  British  capital.  Advocates  of  various  routes  from 
Burma  to  Yunnan  arose  and  amongst  these  were  Messi’s 
Holt  Hallet  and  Colqiihoun  ivho  strongly  favoured 
a line  from  Moulmein  following  the  jn’esent  trade  route 
to  Raheng  in  Siam,  thence  running  past  Laklion,  whence 
a branch  to  Chieng  Mai  could  be  made,  up  due  north 
out  of  Siam,  along  the  Mehkong  river  and  finally  through 
Yunnan  and  right  awaj^  into  the  heart  of  China.  With 
a vieiv  to  promoting  this  route,  its  advocates  explored 
Northern  Siam,  embodied  the  results  of  their  travels  in 
books  of  much  interest  and  in  lectures  which  they  gave 
before  various  geographical  and  commercial  bodies  in 
the  Lnited  Kingdom.  F^ltimately,  however,  the  merits 
of  their  route  ivere  found  inferior  to  those  of  another 


416 


SIAM 


which  did  not  enter  Siam  and  the  project,  to  which  they 
had  given  much  unremunerated  labour,  had  to  be 
abandoned.  Their  work  had  the  effect,  however,  of 
bringing  the  importance  of  railway  communications  in 
his  dominions  prominently  before  His  Majesty  the 
King  of  Siam  and,  in  1887,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
Governor  of  the  Straits  Settlements,  a contract  was 
entered  into  by  His  Government  with  a British  firm 
which  resulted  in  the  survey  for  a line  from  Bangkok 
to  Chieng  Sen  on  the  Mehkong,  the  northernmost  town 
in  the  country.  The  first  railway  in  Siam  was  not 
made,  however,  in  pursuance  of  this  ambitious  project 
but  was,  in  fact,  a modest  private  undertaking  con- 
necting the  Capital  with  the  village  of  Paknam  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Menam  Chao  Phaya.  The  Paknam 
Railway  Co.,  Ltd.  was  organised  in  1891  and  began 
work  in  that  year.  The  line,  twelve  miles  long,  was 
completed  and  was  opened  by  the  King  in  1893.  The 
Company’s  property  consists  of  a narrow  gauge  line  of 
light  material,  stations  constructed  of  timber  at  Bangkok 
and  Paknam  with  a few  tiny  wayside  stations  inter- 
mediate, two  locomotives,  some  half-dozen  passenger 
carriages  and  one  goods  van.  The  line  runs  through 
]>erfectly  level  rice-fields  and  except  for  wooden  bridges 
and  culverts  here  and  there,  cost  very  little  to  build. 
From  the  first  the  railway  was  highly  popular  with  the 
country  people  and  though  it  has  practically  no  goods 
traffic  it  has  proved  a financial  success  the  magnitude 
of  which  has  increased  with  the  lapse  of  time. 

On  the  completion  of  the  northern  survey,  the  question 
of  construction  of  State  railways  fell  into  abeyance  and 
it  was  not  until  necessity  arose  in  another  direction  that 
the  Government  once  more  bestirred  itself  in  the  matter. 
The  action  of  the  French  in  approaching  and  encroaching 
upon  the  eastern  frontier  of  Siam,  and  the  plans  which 
they  began  to  discuss  for  diverting  the  trade  of  Eastern 


RA1L\¥AYS 


4ir 


Siam  from  Bangkok  to  Saigon,  alarmed  the  Siamese 
Government  and  it  was  presently  decided  that  the 
construction  of  a railway  to  the  eastern  provinces  was 
a matter  of  immediate  national  necessity  in  order  that 
the  frontier  might  be  made  easih"  accessible  in  case  of 
military  necessity  and  that  trade  at  the  same  time 
might  be  secured  to  Bangkok,  Tenders  were  thereupon 
invited  for  the  construction  of  a line  from  Bangkok  to 
Korat,  a distance  of  164  miles,  and  a contract  was 
subsequently  given  to  an  Englishman  with  experience 
of  such  work  gained  in  Ceylon  and  in  the  Malay  States. 
The  first  sod  was  cut  by  His  I\rajesty  the  late  King,  in 
1892  and  it  was  hoped  that  rapid  progress  would  be 
n>ade  with  the  line,  but  ill-luck  seems  to  have  fastened 
upon  the  undertaking  at  an  early  stage  and  it  was  not 
until  the  spring  of  1897  that  the  first  section,  about  45 
miles,  was  opened  for  traffic.  When  the  construction 
began,  a Royal  Railway  Department  was  instituted,  the 
principal  duty  of  which  was  to  control  the  work  of  the 
contractor.  44ie  German  gentleman  who  was  appointed 
to  direct  this  department  had  been  an  unsuccessful 
tenderer  for  the  contract,  which  fact  was  scarcely  likely 
to  conduce  to  future  harmony  between  the  contractor 
and  the  Government.  It  did  not,  in  fact,  do  so  for 
differences  arose  almost  at  once  and  a condition  of 
affairs  very  shortly  supervened  which,  going  from  bad 
to  worse,  bid  fair  to  ruin  the  whole  enter]')rise.  The 
unsuccessful  German  competitor,  in  his  capacity  of 
1 )irector  of  Railways,  criticised  and  condemned  the  work 
of  liis  British  rival,  possil:>ly  with  more  zeal  than  tact, 
while  the  contractor,  impatient  of  control,  more  |)ar- 
ticularly  when  exercised  by  this  particular  individual, 
hastened  to  ascribe  all  delays  as  well  as  other  more 
serious  shortcomings  to  undue  interference  on  the  part 
of  the  Government.  At  length  in  1896,  matters  between 
the  Department  and  the  contractor  havincr  reached  an 
2d 


418 


SIAM 


impasse,  tlie  Government  cancelled  tlie  contract,  stopped 
tlie  Avork  and  took  over  the  construction  in  addition  to 
the  direction  of  the  line.  The  claims  Avhich  were  at 
once  put  foiAvard  by  the  contractor  became  the  subjects 
of  a lengthy  arbiti-ation,  ultimately  decided  against  the 
Government.  Fortunately,  there  Avas  amongst  the 
numerous  staff  AAdiich  the  Director  of  RailAA^ays  had 
engaged,  scA^eral  highly  competent  engineers,  in  Avhose 
hands  the  interrupted  AA^ork  of  the  contractor  Avas 
speedily  put  in  order  and  pushed  forAA^ard,  the  first 
section  (from  Bangkok  to  Ayuthia)  being  opened  a fcAv 
months  after  the  change.  The  lieaA^y  Avork  upon  the 
hilly  sections  beyond  aa^s  also  j)ut  in  hand  Avithout 
delay,  and  before  the  end  of  ]900  the  AAdiole  line,  105 
miles  in  length,  AA^as  in  full  Avoildng  order,  though  l:y 
that  time  the  march  of  events  had  robbed  it  of  much  of 
its  strategic  A^alue.  MeaiiAAdiile,  hoAvever,  the  original 
scheme  of  a railAA^ay  to  the  north  had  been  revived  and 
Avork  had  been  begun  on  a 20  mile  section  branching 
from  the  Ivorat  line  a little  above  Ayuthia  and  carrying 
railhead  to  the  ancient  toAvn  of  Lopburi  some  70  miles 
north  of  Bangkok.  This  branch  AA^as  opened  for  traffic 
in  1901.  At  the  same  time  CA^ents  in  Southern  Siam 
and  the  groAving  need  of  communications  betAveen  the 
provinces  on  the  Avest  of  the  Menam  Chao  Phaya  and 
the  capital,  caused  a further  deA^elopment  of  railAAmy 
policy,  Avith  the  result  that  in  1900  the  late  king  ordered 
the  construction  of  a Jline  starting  from  the  Avest  side 
of  the  river  at  Bangkok  and  running  Avest  to  Ratburi 
and  thence  south  to  Petchaburi,  94  miles  distant, 
(‘onstituting  the  first  section  of  a future  Peninsular 
Railway.  This  work  aauis  pushed  on  rajiidly  and  AA^ell, 
and  in  1903  the  AAdiole  section  Avas  completed  and 
opened.  Thus  eleA^en  years  after  beginning  AA^ork,  the 
Siamese  State  RaipA^a^^s  consisted  of  285  miles  of  com- 
pleted lines  AAdiich,  though  by  no  means  a great  achieve- 
ment for  so  long  a ]ieriod,  Avas  at  least  more  than  a 


RAILWAYS 


419 


mere  lieginniiig,  and  very  consiJeraljly  more  tlian  was 
])rognosticated  tlie  hostile  critics  of  eA^erytliiiig 
Siamese,  who  greeted  the  ince])tion  of  the  railway  policy 
and  the  early  misadventures  which  attended  its  realisa- 
tion with  scepticism  and  ridicnle. 

Hitherto  the  cost  of  constrnction  of  the  line  with  its 
complement  of  bnil dings  and  rolling-stock  had  been 
defrayed  entirely  ont  of  revenue,  but  it  was  now  felt 
that,  while  military  and  administrative  requirements  in 
Northern  Siam  rendered  the  extension  of  the  northern 
line  imperative,  the  growing  demands  of  other  Dejiart- 
ments  of  Government  could  not  be  neglected  and  that 
the  Government  having  spent  27,500,000  tieals,  or 
about  a million  and  a half  sterling,  woidd  he  well 
advised  to  resort  to  liorroAving  for  further  raihva>' 
construction.  In  1903,  therefore,  the  first  foreign  loan 
of  Siam  Avas  raised,  consisting  of  one  million  pounds, 
and  since  that  date  railway  construction  has  been  more 
rapid  than  formerly,  while  more  ordinary  revenue  has 
been  available  for  other  pur])oses.  In  1905  the  section 
liOpburi  — Paknampoh,  73  miles,  was  added  to  the 
Xorthern  Line,  and  this  was  followed  at  the  end  of 
1907  hy  the  further  section  Paknampoh — Phitsaiiulok, 
87  miles,  opened  hy  the  late  King  Chulalongkorn,  who, 
in  his  speech  at  the  conclusion  of  the  ceremony, 
enui](uated  the  motive  of  Siamese  ralKayv  ])olicy  in  the 
following  words  : 

‘ The  construction  of^  railways  has  not  only  the 
greatest  influence  upon  the  development  of  a country, 
hut  is  also  the  most  striking  evidence  of  that  (level )]>- 
ment.  , . . Py  hringing  the  dilferent  parts  of  a country 
within  close  communication  the  railway  renders  ])ossible 
that  close  and  heneficial  sui)ervision  which  is  necessary 
to  effective  administration.  P.y  furnishing  rapid  and 
easy  means  of  transportation,  it  adds  materially  to  the 
A'alue  of  the  land  and  its  products.  . . . The  railwav 
wherever  it  goes  carries  wdth  it  enlightenment  and 


420 


SIAM 


encourages  the  growth  of  that  national  feeling  which 
is  so  important  an  element  in  the  welfare  of  a country. 
...  I trust  that  the  work  will  continue  to  advance  with 
rapidity  for,  as  I have  already  stated,  progress  in  this 
work  means  progress  in  the  development  of  the  country 
and  the  prosperity  of  the  people,  Avhich  I have  so  mmdi 
at  heart.’ 

In  1908,  the  section  Phitsanulok-Bandara,  42  miles, 
Avas  o]3ened  and  thus  202  miles  were  added  to  the  main 
raihvay  of  the  country  in  the  six  years  folloAAung  1903  ; 
while  during  that  same  period  a great  part  of  the 
tunnelling,  bridging,  and  other  heavy  Avork  for  the 
next  sections,  the  heaviest  and  most  expensi\"e  part  of 
the  AAdiole  Northern  . line  AA^ere  also  hand  and 

brought  to  an  advanced  stage.  Moreover,  a third  line 
of  GoA^ernment  railwaA",  connecting  the  eastAA^ard  and 
south-eastAvard  x>i'o^dnces  Avith  the  capital,  was  taken 
up  during  this  period,  a section  of  this,  Bangkok- 
Petriu,  39  miles,  being  com]4eted  and  opened  for 
traffic  early  in  1908.  When  the  final  accounts  for  the 
traffic  on  the  Northern  Raihvay  Avere  made  uf>  for  the 
year  1908-09,  they  shoAved  that  the  line  had  reached 
a })oint  beyond  AAdiich  its  extension  could  not  be  expected 
to  ^yy  I’eason,  partly  of  the  sx^arseness  of  the 

lyopulation  and  partly  of  the  expensiA^e  nature  of  the 
Avurk  recjuired  to  carry  the  line  through  the  hilly 
country  at  the  edge  of  AAdiich  it  had  arrived.  It  AA^as 
therefore  determined  to  suspend  further  construction 
and  to  make  the  terminus  for  the  time  being  at 
tlie  foot  of  the  hills  a fcAV  miles  beyond  Utaradit,  wdth 
a short,  AvestAvard  branch  to  the  ancient  city  of  SaAvan- 
kalok.  These  remaining  sections  AA^ere  ox)ened  by  His 
yiajesty  the  King,  then  CroAvn  Prince,  toAA^ards  the  end 
of  1909.  At  the  x^i*esent  moment,  therefore,  the  GoA'Crn- 
ment  RaipA^ay  iJepartment  controls  over  580  miles  of 
single  raihva}^  line  of  1'455  metre  gauge  on  the  east 
side  of  the  Menam  Chao  Phaya,  and  1 metre  gauge  on 


RAILWAYS 


421 


the  west  side,  with  a rolling  stock  consisting  of  GO 
locomotives,  200  passenger  carriages,  and  1000  goods 
and  ballast  waggons.  There  are  palatial  offices  in 
llangkok  and  stations  every  few  miles  along  the  lines. 
The  rails  ])ass  over  hundreds  of  bridges,  the  three 
largest  of  Avhich  are  handsome  steel  structures  built  on 
masonry  piers  and  between  140  and  200  yards  long. 
Tlie  whole  system  represents  an  invested  capital  of  fifty 
million  ticals  or  close  on  three  million  sterling.  Engaged 
upon  the  construction  are  Siamese,  British,  German, 
Italian  and  Danish  engineers.  Of  the  material,  rails 
and  bridge  girders  are  now  partly  from  England, 
lo('omotives  all  from  Germany  and  carriages  and 
Avaggons  from  England  and  Belgium,  though  at  one 
period  of  the  construction  all  material  was  bought  in 
Germany.  The  financial  management  of  the  Railways 
Avas  for  some  years  a cause  of  friction  betAveen  the 
Financial  and  the  Pulilic  Works  De])artments  of 
GoA^ernment,  the  raiBvay  director  adAmncing  the  theory 
that  money  allotted  to  raihvays  in  the  annual  financial 
budget  of  the  Kingdom  must  be  under  his  absolute 
control  and  to  he  accounted  for  only  to  llis  l\lajesty  the 
King  and  not  under  any  circumstances  to  llis  Majesty’s 
Ministry  of  Finance  AAdience  the  budget  issued.  Further- 
more, after  the  (*ancellation  of  the  railway  contract  the 
Director  insisted  that  the  purchase  of  all  material  must 
be  left  to  himself  alone,  to  be  conducted  Iia’  ]irivate  tender, 
or  Avithout  tender  at  all,  as  seemed  to  him  best.  The 
efforts  of  the  ]\linistry  of  Finance  to  obtain  the  bare  infor- 
mation as  to  hoAv  the  large  sums  of  money  annually  Avited 
for  railAA'ays  Avere  being  spent,  evoked  from  the  Director 
an  outcry  of  injured  honesty,  and  from  the  German 
^linister  resident  at  Bangkok,  a whirlAvind  of  indignant 
objection,  so  that  the  GoA^'ernment  Avas  fain  to  accjuiesce 
in  this  unusual  situation  until  the  failure  of  a Leijizig 
bank,  inA’olving  the  loss  of  a sum  of  Siamese  money,  Avhich 
should  liaA'e  been  in  the  Bangkok  Treasury,  effect iA'ely 


422 


SIAM 


demonstrated  the  unsouiidness  of  the  system  and  brought 
about  the  introdnction  of  a better  system  of  control. 

While  the  construction  of  the  railway  is  the  work 
of  engineers  of  various  nationality,  the  management  of 
those  parts  of  it  Avliich  are  oi:>en  for  traffic  has  long 
]jeen  in  the  hands  of  Germans  and  has  suffered  some- 
what from  excess  of  officialism.  When  the  first  section 
Avas  opened,  the  i)eople,  to  whom,  by  nature,  even  the 
mildest  of  restrictions  are  irksome,  were  to  some  extent 
restrained  from  using  the  railAvay  by  the  numerous 
useless  regulations  to  Avhich  passengers  Avere  subjected 
and  by  a too  frequent  interference  Avith  their  moA^ements 
by  fussy  individuals,  panoiilied  in  the  martial  uniforms 
common  to  German  railAA^ay  officials.  Experience  has, 
liOAveA^er,  brought  a measure  of  Avisdom  and  raibvay 
traA^elling  is  iioaa-  a fixed  institution  Avith  the  people, 
more  esjAecially  since  the  abolition  of  gambling  houses 
in  the  provinces  has  caused  the  peasantry  to  resort  in 
large  numbers  to  those  of  the  Capital.  As  regards  goods 
traffic  the  results  hawe  1)een  disappointing.  It  is  estimated 
that  not  more  than  four  ])er  cent  of  the  produce  which  is 
lArought  from  the  country  into  Bangkok  is  carried  b}^ 
the  railAAmy.  Water  transport,  though  sIoav,  has  many 
facilities  AAdiich  the  railAAmy  cannot  offer  and  here  again 
there  ai*e  indications  that  irksome  regulations  and  insuf- 
iicient  care  and  attention  on  the  ])art  of  the  department 
and  its  employes  haA^e  discouraged  the  use  of  the  line. 

That  the  State  railways  Avill,  IioAvever,  ultimately  be 
succ-essful  and  profitable  there  can  l)e  no  doubt.  Already 
they  have  carried  ]>ros])erity  into  more  than  one  formerly 
desolate  and  unproductive  region,  the  toAAms  and  villages 
along  the  line  have  increased  in  size  and  AA^ealth  since 
they  have  been  connected  Avith  the  capital,  a consider- 
able trade  in  live-stock  has  s])rung  up  Avhich  had  no 
])]-evious  existence  at  all  and  the  management  of  the 
service  is  continually  improving  and  becoming  better 
adapted  to  the  requirements  of  commerce.  The  net 


RAILAVAYS 


423 


proceeds  from  traffic  of  all  kinds  amounted,  for  the 
year  1908-1909,  to  2, 530, 77 7 '45  ticals,  or  about  one 
hundred  and  ninety-two  thousand  pounds  sterling, 
providing  a small  sum  for  the  renovation  fund  and  4|- 
per  cent,  interest  on  the  capital  expended.  For  x^urposes 
of  administration  the  value  of  the  railways  cannot  be 
over-rated,  and  a considerable  part  of  the  recent  imxu’ove- 
ment  in  the  government  of  the  interior  could  never 
have  been  brought  into  effective  operation  without  them. 

In  the  spring  of  1909  the  Siamese  Railwa\^  Depart- 
ment signed  an  agreement  with  the  Government  of  the 
British  Federated  Malay  States  by  which  it  secured 
a loan  of  four  million  sterling  for  the  xDurpose  of  extend- 
ing the  railway  from  Petchaburi  southwards  througli 
Southern  Siam  to  link  up  with  the  Federated  Malay 
States  railway  system.  The  political  advantages  of  this 
agreement  to  England  are  considerable,  for  by  it  she 
obtains  that  influence  throughout  the  length  of  the 
Siamo-iMalay  Peninsula  to  the  exclusion  of  other  foreign 
powers  for  which  she  has  been  working  for  many  years. 
Its  adA^antages  to  Siam  are  also  manifest  for  it  ensures 
the  immediate  ox^ening  ux^  of  the  fertile  regions  of 
Soutiiern  Siam  AAffiich  must  otherwise  liaA^e  been  in- 
definitely delayed  and  it  brings  the  Siamese  capital 
apxDreciably  nearer  to  the  AA'orld’s  great  mail  and  traffic 
route  through  the  Straits  of  Malacca.  The  suiwey  Avork 
for  this  southern  extension,  AAdiich  Avill  be  OA^er  six 
hundred  miles  in  length,  has  been  completed,  con- 
struction is  in  x^rogress  at  many  x^oints  and  the  section 
Avliich  crosses  the  x'^eninsula  from  Trang  on  the  Avest 
to  Singora  on  the  east,  is  ox^en  for  traffic.  The  contracts 
for  material  for  this  raipA'ay  liaA^e  all  been  made  after 
o]^en  tender  and  liaA’-e  mostly  gone  to  Germany  and 
Belgium.  Transport  of  the  material  from  Eurox^e  is  in 
the  hands  of  the  East  Asiatic  Co.  Ed.  (T)anish). 

In  the  beginning  of  1912  the  GoA’ernment  decided  to 
push  on  Avith  the  Xorthern  PailAA’ay  in  the  direction  of 


424 


SIAM 


Chieng  Mai  and  work  at  railhead  began  again  after 
having  been  suspended  for  two  years.  It  is  expected 
that  the  extension  to  Chieng  Mai  will  cost  about  a 
million  and  a half  sterling  and  will  occupy  about  six 
years.  The  increasing  necessity  for  developing  the 
resources  of  the  Chieng  Mai  neighbourhood  is  the 
principal  reason  for  undertaking  the  extension. 

PART 

ART 

That  the  Siamese  were  at  one  time  skilled  in  the  pro- 
duction of  objects  of  high  artistic  value  is  abundantly 
testified  by  the  innumerable  treasures  of  native  work- 
manship which  are  stored  up  in  tlie  museums  and  in  the 
private  collections  of  the  wealthier  class.  That  they  are 
so  now  is  not,  however,  so  evident  since  it  is  larely  that 
artists  of  any  great  capacity  are  met  with  at  the  present 
day,  while  the  results  of  the  labours  of  such  as  there 
are  can  very  seldom  compare  favourably  with  the 
productions  of  the  past.  The  explanation  of  this 
<lecadence  is  not  far  to  seek,  and  is  simply  that  the 
great  influx  of  European  goods  brought  about  by  the 
(‘ommerce  of  the  last  few  decades  has  very  nearly  killed 
the  art  of  the  country,  and  has  also  to  some  extent 
debauched  and  perverted  the  artistic  perceptions  of  the 
peo])le.  Burma,  China,  and  JajDan  have  all  suffered 
much  from  the  same  cause,  l^ut  the  characteristic  arts  of 
those  countries  have  l)een  saved  from  utter  extinction 
by  the  growtli  of  a foreign  demand  for  their  iDroductions 
wliich  has  given  them  fresh  impetus  though  doubtless 
along  a much  lower  artistic  plane.  The  world, 
however,  lias  hitherto  shown  no  interest  in  the  arts  of 
Siam  exce])t  for  the  purpose  of  imitating  or  supplanting 
them  in  the  country  itself,  and  thus  with  the  desires 
and  appreciation  of  the  people  turning  from  them, 


ART  425 

and  without  encouragement  from  outside  they  are  in 
danger  of  extinction. 

Another  reason  for  the  decline  is  to  he  found  in  the 
break-up  of  the  households  of  wealthy  nobles  and 
others,  brought  about  by  recent  changes  in  the  manner 
of  life  in  Siam.  In  the  days  when  the  position  and 
wealth  of  a man  were  gauged  by  the  number  of  followers 
he  kept  about  him,  each  person  of  rank  maintained  his 
own  private  jewellers,  painters,  silversmiths,  poets,  and 
so  forth,  and  therefore  was  in  a measure  the  patron  of 
a school  of  art  for  which  recruits  were  easily  found 
from  amongst  his  household,  recruits  who  strove  to 
uphold  the  honour  of  their  patron  by  an  excellence  of 
workmanship,  and  a careful  preservation  of  national 
forms  and  ideals,  for  the  realisation  of  which  their  mode 
of  life  gave  them  ample  leisure.  This  class  has  now  to 
a great  extent  disappeared  wdiile  many  of  those  whose 
patronage  should  properly  be  used  to  support  native 
talent  have  themselves  become  possessed  with  the  idea 
that  the  wretched  travesties  of  foreign  art  which  are 
foisted  upon  them  by  eager  tradesmen  are  eminently 
desirable  possessions,  and  prefer  to  spend  their  money 
on  the  acquisition  of  these  latter  rather  than  in  tlie 
encouragement  of  the  arts  which  flourislmd  under  the 
care  of  their  forefathers. 

Fortunately,  liowever,  the  case  is  not  absolutely 
iioj^eless.  There  still  remain  a few  determined  patrons 
of  the  national  arts,  the  most  enthusiastic  of  whom  is 
tlie  King  himself,  while  in  all  that  concerns  the  em- 
bellishments of  religion,  to  which  tlie  art  of  the  countiw 
has  always  lieen  mainly  devoted,  the  public  taste  is 
liighly  conservative.  ]\Ioreover  there  are  signs  that  the 
Siamese  are  recovering  from  the  sad  condition  which 
led  them  to  believe  that  all  whicli  came  from  abroad 
must  necessarily  be  superior  to  their  own  productions, 
and  it  is  possible  that  the  growth  of  national  spirit 
which  is  now  one  of  the  most  striking  signs  of 


426 


SIAM 


the  times,  may  bring  about  a renaissance  of  the 
arts. 

Sculpture. — True  sculpture,  that  is  the  carving  of 
stone,  can  scarcely  be  said  to  exist  at  all  in  Siam  at  the 
present  day,  though  there  is  evidence  in  the  ruins  of  the 
oldest  temples  that  this  art  at  one  time  flourished  in  the 
land.  Ancient  figures  of  gods,  angels,  and  men,  repre- 
sentations of  snakes,  birds,  elephants,  and  other  animals 
as  well  as  of  flowers  and  sacred  symbols  caiwed,  some 
in  low,  others  in  high,  relief,  ujoon  ancient  walls  and 
monuments  of  sandstone,  laterite,  and  fine  blue  lime- 
stone, have  here  and  there  resisted  the  ravages  of  time 
and  stand  to-day  in  all  their  wealth  of  extraordinary 
minuteness  and  accuracy  of  detail  as  monuments  to  the 
genius  of  the  remote  ancestors  of  the  Siamese,  and  as 
j)roofs  of  the  extreme  antiquity  of  the  sculptor’s  art, 
and  of  the  peculiar  conventions  which  were  formerly, 
and  still  are  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  Siamese 
artistic  imagination.  The  disuse  of  stone  for  religious 
buildings  put  an  end  to  sculpture,  l3ut  in  its  place  there 
arose  a craft  of  modelling  in  softer  materials  such  as 
clay  and  durable  plaster  or  cement  with  which  latter 
substance  the  brickwork  structures  that  replaced  stone 
^rere  encased,  and  which  continues  to  be  exercised  at 
the  present  day.  Cla,y  models  of  the  human  figure, 
ai)parently  of  great  antiquity  and  of  almost  perfect 
form  and  proportion  have  been  found  amongst  the 
ruins  of  ancient  cities,  and  there  are  to-day  a few 
artists  in  Bangkok  whose  modelled  figures  of  men  and 
beasts  are  almost  equal  to  those  of  yore.  Plaster 
mouldings,  set  hard  as  granite,  upon  a substructure  of 
brick  and  in  effect  reseml)liiig  stfuie  sculpture,  have 
survived  from  the  12th  century  a. d.,  and  serve  as  models 
in  the  construction  and  ornamentation  of  modem 
temples,  though  in  these  latter  cases  neither  the 
material  nor  the  execution  are  equal  to  those  of  the 
prototypes,  ddie  number  of  images  of  the  Buddha 


AXCIKXT  SCULl’TURE  IX  SAXDSTOXE  : RUIXS  OF  PIMAI. 

Subject:  Adoralion  of  the  Buddha. 


THE  SA.XCTUARY  OF  PIMAI. 


AR'r 


427 


wliicli  have  been  made  in  Siam  is  quite  heyond 
calculation.  In  every  temple,  in  caves,  and  in  pagodas 
on  the  top  of  hills,  they  are  to  be  found  not  singly 
but  in  dozens,  sometimes  in  hundreds.  Next  to  the 
actual  making  of  a Buddha  the  most  meritorious  of 
actions  is  to  buy  one  and  to  place  it  in  a temple  or  in 
some  prominent  situation  where  it  may  catch  the  eye  of 
man  and  lead  his  thoughts  to  the  Teacher  and  the  Law, 
and  for  this  reason  there  has  l)een  from  the  earliest 
times  a demand  for  images  which  has  kept  generation 
after  generation  of  artists  busy.  In  the  life  of  the 
Buddha  the  thirt.y-two  corporeal  signs  of  a true  Buddha 
are  carefully  and  more  than  once  enumerated  ; Avliich 
signs,  had  they  really  l)een  present  in  the  Buddha, 
would,  many  of  them,  have  marked  him  out  undoul)tedly 
as  physically  quite  unlike  any  other  human  being  who 
ever  lived  on  this  earth.  There  is  evidence  elsewhere, 
however,  that  the  Teaciier  began  life  as  a very  ordinary 
looking  Prince,  not  startlingly  different  in  ])hysique 
from  other  princes  or  from  common  men  either. 

iVmongst  the  signs  are  these  ; tliat  the  arms  and  legs 
are  straight  and  round  ‘like  candles,’  and  Avithout 
appearance  of  mascular  development  or  of  A^eins,  that 
the  back  lias  no  depression  doAvn  the  centi-e,  l)Tit  is 
straight  and  flat  ‘ like  a golden  plank,’  that  the  iieck  is 
smooth  and  ‘ like  a tube,’  and  that  the  back  of  each  foot 
and  hand  is  round  like  the  back  of  a tortoise.  These 
signs  are  faithfully  reproduced  in  all  the  images,  from 
the  most  ancient  doAviiAvards,  with  the  result  that  the 
figure  is  exactly  AAdiat  might  be  expected  from  the  efl'orts 
at  scidpture  of  primitiAm  men  witlioAit  knoAvledge  of 
anatomy  or  education  in  Art,  from  Avhich  it  seems 
probal)le  that  the  thirty-tAATj  signs,  or  at  least  some  of 
them,  AA'ere  originally  conceiA^ed  as  characteristics  of  the 
Buddha  from  the  contemplation  of  rurle  images  made 
by  inexpert  but  A’enerable  hands.  These  images  liaAdiig 
acquired  a sanctity  AAdiich  it  Avould  haA-e  been  sacrilege 


428 


SIAM 


to  doubt,  it  was  found  convenient  to  pronounce  tlieir 
manifest  imperfections  as  due,  not  to  incompetence  of 
the  makers  but  to  a truthful  representation  of  the 
peculiar  physiq  ue  of  a Buddha.  Through  the  centuries 
the  innumerable  images  of  the  Buddha  have  been  all  made 
in  exact  copy  of  the  first  crude  models,  and  the  Siamese 
faithfully  adhere  to  the  same  elementary  form  to-day, 
though  their  knowledge  and  skill  have  long  ago  enabled 
them  to  reproduce  secular  subjects  in  more  accurate 
likeness  to  the  living  forms.  The  vast  majority  of 
sacred  images  represent  the  Buddha  as  seated  cross- 
legged,  sometimes  with  one  foot  hidden  and  sometimes 
with  the  soles  of  both  feet  turned  up  in  the  lap,  the 
latter  an  attitude  almost  impossible  of  attainment  by 
ordinary  mortals.  Less  often  tlie  figure  is  recumbent 
with  the  head  resting  on  one  hand,  or  erect  and  holding 
tlie  folds  of  the  garments  in  each  hand  or  having  the 
hands  raised  in  benediction,  or  occasionally  walking  or 
seated  as  on  a chair. 

Moulding  in  stucco  is  now  employed  almost  solely  in 
works  of  a religions  nature,  but  in  clay  modelling  many 
secular  subjects  are  treated.  Groups  illustrative  of  the 
various  ii^dustries  and  pastimes,  flowers,  and  fruit  and 
animals,  are  made  in  large  numbers  and  when  coloured 
are  very  accurate  and  lifelike. 

Metal  easting. — The  Siamese  have  long  been  pro- 
ficient in  the  art  of  casting  bronze.  Bronze  images  of 
the  Buddha  in  faithful  accordance  with  the  ju'escribed 
form  are  almost  as  numerous  as  those  of  brick  and 
stucco.  They  are  of  all  sizes,  from  the  giant  figure 
forty  feet  high  wliicli  is  still  to  be  seen  amongst  the 
ruins  ol  Ayuthia,  to  the  little  images  of  a few  inches 
only  whi(di  can  be  bought  in  the  bazaars  ; and  of  all 
ages,  from  the  ancient  productions  of  the  tenth  century 
or  earlier  to  the  very  fine  specimens  cast  under  the 
personal  supervision  of  the  King  at  Phitsanulok  a year 
or  tAvo  ago.  Bronze  l)ells  have  also  been  made  in  Siam 


'I'UK  (iRKAT  IIROXZK  P>UDI)HA  OF  AYUTHIA, 
(Wrecked  by  the  l)urmese  in  A. D.';  1765.) 


A TKMFLK  DOOR  IX  CARVED  TEAK. 


AKT 


429 


from  time  immemorial,  while  lieaA^y  bronze  cannon  cast 
in  the  14th  century,  some  in  the  shape  of  dragons,  and 
others  heavily  ornamented  with  scroll  work,  are  still 
preserved  in  the  museums  and  elsewhere. 

Wood-Carving. — The  Siamese  have  not  achieved  great 
things  in  the  way  of  wood-carving  and  in  this  respect 
are  far  behind  the  Burmese  with  whom  carving  takes 
almost  first  place  amongst  the  arts.  When  the  ancient 
stone  buildings  began  to  be  replaced  by  brick  and 
j3laster  structures,  a good  deal  of  timber  was  introduced 
into  building  and  this  led  to  the  use  of  wood-carving  in 
the  ornamentation  of  gable  ends,  of  wooden  pillars, 
doorways  and  so  forth.  The  finest  specimens  of  carving 
ai-e  to  be  found  in  the  Xorth,  the  Lao  country,  where 
teak  timber,  which  lends  itself  to  such  work,  has  always 
been  much  used  for  building  purposes.  Even  at  its 
best,  however,  the  carving  of  Siam  is  not  ver}^  striking. 
Floral  designs  are  preferred,  figures  not  l:>eing  often 
attempted.  Here  and  there,  however,  figures  of  angels 
and  of  men  and  oft  depicted  incidents  of  sacred  story 
aj^pear  on  the  carved  doors,  Avindows  and  gable  ends  of 
temples,  and  some  of  these  are  of  good  execution  AAdiile 
others,  usually  the  more  modern,  are  of  the  crudest  and 
most  grotesque  description  and  scarcely  to  be  classed  as 
art  productions  at  all. 

Inlaying,  Gilding  and  Lacquer  Work  include  some  of 
tlie  most  tasteful  products  of  Siamese  art.  With  such 
2^001*  material  as  broken  glass  and  fragments  of  2^orcelain 
set  in  i^laster,  xerj  fine  general  effects  are  olfiained  in 
the  ornamentation  of  Plirachedi,  temihes  and  other 
structures  connected  Avith  religion.  True,  such  Avork 
Avill  not  bear  minute  ins2)ection  and  has  often  been 
C(mdemned  as  taAvdry  and  as  betraying  Amry  Ioav  and 
barbarous  artistic  ideals.  Such  materials  are,  hoAA'eA^er 
used  only  for  the  embellishment  of  large  objects  or  of 
buildings  AAdiere  a general  combined  effect  is  sought 
and,  AAdiatCAxr  faults  of  detail  a close  examination  may 


430 


SIAM 


reveal,  tliere  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  work,  when  viewed 
as  a whole  and  from  a distance,  is  often  such  as  to 
compel  the  admiration  even  of  the  hostile  critic.  No  one 
to  whom  the  gift  of  artistic  perception  has  not  been 
altogether  denied  can  behold  the  limpid  light  of  a tropic 
moon  reflected  in  a thousand  flashing  points  of  green 
and  blue  from  the  tall  spire  of  a glass-encrusted  Phrachedi 
without  realising  that  only  true  art  could  have  inspired 
the  wmrk  before  him  and  unfortunate  persons  who  can 
see  no  more  than  the  mere  rough  detail  of  it  are  to  be 
commiserated.  The  amateur  of  detail  wdio  cannot 
admire  broad  effects  may,  however,  find  something  more 
pleasing  in  the  lacc[uer  and  gilt  cabinets,  tables,  trays 
and  other  objects  to  be  seen  in  the  museums  and  in 
maii}^  private  houses.  This  work,  which  is  now  un- 
fortunately almost  a lost  art,  once  upon  a time  had  cer}^ 
clever  exponents  in  Siam,  whose  productions  are  now 
highly  valued.  It  consists  of  an  immense  variety  of 
designs  and  figures  wmrked  out  in  gilding  uponaismooth 
black  surface  of  lacquer,  usually  small  and  always 
exhibiting  a laborious  attention  to  the  minutest  detail. 
Scenes  from  the  stories  of  Indian  mythology  and  episodes 
in  the  life  of  the  Buddha  are  the  usual  themes,  generally 
disposed  round  a central  representation  of  the  Teacher 
Idmself  or  some  sacred  emblem  such  as  the  wheel 
called  Ghakr.  Angels,  njunphs,  demons  and  fabulous 
monsters  from  Siamese  fairy-land  ; princesses  distressed 
and  otherwise,  kings  and  warriors  from  the  fantastic 
pages  of  inaccurate  histoiy,  are  portrayed  in  gold  ujoon 
the  l)lack  background,  disporting  themselves,  always 
in  strictly  conventional  attitudes,  flying,  running,  fight- 
ing, I)athing  and  reposing,  with  the  Buddha  eternally 
repeated  in  each  of  his  recognised  positions,  calm  and 
aloof  amid  stirring  incidents  of  human  and  celestial 
love  and  war.  While  the  details  of  these  works  are 
brought  out  witli  the  utmost  care,  the  general  effect  is 
not  overlooked  ; the  figures  are  placed  in  accordance 


LACQUER-WARK  CASKETS  EOR  HOLDING  P>OOKS, 


LACnUER  TORTOISESHELL  SILVER  IVORY 


COVERS  FOR  RAI.AI-LEAF  SACRED  WRFriXGS, 


AR'r 


431 


with  a general  scheme  in  and  round  about  the  edges  of 
panels  and  along  carefully  worked  gilt  l3order-lines  and 
sometimes  tlie  whole  is  enclosed  in  carved,  lacquered 
and  gilt  frames  set  off  with  lines  of  red  colour.  Some 
of  the  most  effective  temple  doors  are  ornamented  with 
this  work,  but  the  best  specimens  are  found  on  ancient 
cabinets  in  which  palm-leaf  books  containing  writingn 
on  sacred  subjects  are  stored.  Unfortunately  the  art 
as  practised  now-a-days  comj^ares  ill  with  that  of  the 
X^ast.  The  figures  are  crude  and  bear  evidence  of  the 
haste  and  carelessness  of  modern  workmen  while  the 
variety  of  themes  is  much  more  restricted  than  of 
old. 

Betel-boxes,  cnj^s  and  trays  of  coloured  lacquer  are 
made  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  notably  in  the 
north.  The  fonndation  of  these  is  of  bamboo  cut  int(3 
fine  thin  strips  and  closely  woven  together.  The  lacquer 
is  on  in  layers,  each  layer  being  carefully  dried 
before  the  ax3i3lication  of  the  next.  Red,  black  and 
green  lacquer  is  used  and  neat  circular  bands  and 
floral  designs  are  joroduced  in  these  colours.  The  ware, 
when  finished,  is  pliable  and  a good  cux3  or  bowl  should 
be  cax)able  of  being  comxDressed  until  the  ox^posite 
edges  meet  without  any  damage  to  the  lacquer  or 
XJernianent  alteration  of  the  shape. 

The  art  of  inlaying  lacquer- ware  with  mother-of-x^earl 
is  a good  deal  x^ractised,  chiefly  for  the  making  of  trays 
in  which  offerings  are  taken  to  the  tem])les,  of  covers  for 
the  begging-bowls  of  monks  and  of  other  objects  of  a 
like  nature — the  art  was  prol^ably  introduced  originally 
from  China  l)ut  has  long  ago  acquired  a quite  dis- 
tinctively Siamese  form.  The  shell,  wliich  is  cnt  into 
small  x^ieces  of  a sufficient  A^ariety  of  sha]4e,  is  set  in 
AA'hile  the  lacquer,  Avhich  has  been  ax)X3lied  xu’eviously,  is 
still  soft,  and  the  A\diole  surface  is  subsequently  alloAved 
to  harden,  when  it  is  ground  down  to  an  absolute  smooth- 
ness and  polished.  Innumerable  designs  are  used  and 


432 


SIAM 


the  result  is  often  very  beautiful.  Remarkable  examples 
of  this  work,  in  the  form  of  boxes  and  covers  to  contain 
palm-leaf  coj)ies  of  sermons  and  scriptural  extracts,  are 
preserved  in  the  Royal  Library  in  Bangkok.  These 
are  dated  about  1835  and  were  mostly  made  to  the 
order  of  King  Phra  Nang  Klao,  great  uncle  of  the 
present  king.  Here  again  the  old  productions  are 
superior  to  the  modern,  for  the  best  results  are  only 
to  be  achieved  by  slow,  patient  and  careful  work  which 
the  Siamese  of  the  present  day  finds  no  particular  in- 
ducement to  give.  The  inlaying  of  mother-of-pearl  in 
ebony  and  other  ornamenta]  hard  woods  is  also  practised 
and  articles  were  made  a few  years  ago  for  exhibition 
in  America,  which  show  by  their  excellence  of  design 
and  execution  that  the  modern  artists  who  make  a 
precarious  living  by  turning  out  work  of  this  kind, 
usually  of  a quite  contemptible  quality,  can  still,  with 
proper  inducement  and  under  fortunate  conditions, 
produce  results  of  great  merit.  The  artists  in 
this  instance  were  long  sentence  convicts  to  whom 
the  best  of  materials  were  supplied  by  Government 
and  who  naturally  had  plenty  of  time  on  their 
hands. 

Large  quantities  of  gold-leaf  are  annually  imported  into 
the  country  and  much  is  also  made  locally,  with  which 
the  spires  of  Phraeliedi,  the  columns  of  temples,  images 
of  the  Buddha,  the  backs  of  palm-leaf  books  and  a hundred 
and  one  other  objects  are  thickly  gilded.  The  applica- 
tion of  gold-leaf  to  a sacred  image  is  one  of  the  popular 
ways  of  acc[uiring  merit,  wherefore  most  of  the  more 
notable  images,  more  especially  those  which  superstition 
has  imbued  with  miraculous  powers,  are  usually  kept 
well  covered  with  gilding.  Considerable  sums  are 
spent  on  gold-leaf  at  the  time  of  the  annual  pilgrimage 
to  the  Holy  Footprint  at  Phrabat.  Sometimes  a man  of 
wealth  Avill  gild  a whole  image  by  himself  ; at  others  a 
small  quantity  of  leaf  is  contributed  by  each  individual 


ART 


433 


of  a comniunit}"  until  a particular  image  lias  been 
covered.  The  result  is  pleasing,  but  the  work  can 
hardly  be  dignified  by  the  name  of  art. 

Silver  worliing  is  a form  of  art  in  which  the  Siamese 
particularly  excels.  The  Court,  and  other  silver-smiths 
of  Bangkok  devote  themselves  chiefly  to  repousse  work 
in  which  the  nsnal  scenes  and  figures  of  legend  and 
fairytale  are  reproduced  in  high  relief  and  with  a notable 
skill.  Such  silver-work  is  the  only  form  of  native  art 
for  which  any  foreign  demand  exists  and  to  meet  it  a 
few  silver-smiths  find  a profitable  employment  in  the 
making  of  articles  of  European  fashion  bearing  stock 
Siamese  designs.  Thus  photograph-frames,  fan-sticks, 
sugar-bowls,  salt-cellars,  napkin-rings,  cigarette-cases, 
ladies’  belt-clasps  and  nnmeroiis  other  articles  can  be 
lionght  by  the  globe-trotter  in  Bangkok,  on  which  are 
depicted  the  posturings  and  aerial  gambols  of  angels 
and  demons  or  the  chasing  of  wood-nymphs  by  hideous 
satyrs,  in  the  attitudes  and  amid  the  snrronndings 
peculiar  to  Siamese  fancy.  Perhaps  tlie  commonest 
theme  is  that  of  the  beautiful  Xang  Mani  Mekhala,  the 
Goddess  of  Lightning,  hotly  jinrsned  liy  Ramasura 
(Parasnyana  of  Brahman  mythology)  the  God  of  Thunder, 
fleeing  before  him  for  ever  and  always  evading  him, 
while  at  the  same  time  luring  him  to  the  pursuit  by 
languishing  movements  and  amorous  backward  glances. 
Betel-boxes,  bowls,  dishes  and  trays  of  similiar  work- 
manship and  design  are  popular  with  the  Siamese 
upper  classes  and  specimens  are  to  be  seen  in  most 
houses  of  the  well-to-do.  The  art,  which  is  closely 
allied  to  Burmese  repousse  v^ork,  has  of  late  years 
undergone  some  improvement  by  the  introduction  of 
highly  skilled  Burmese  artists  to  assist  the  Court 
jewellers  and  to  supply  new  designs.  The  best  work  is 
in  very  high  relief,  the  smooth  surfaces  being  highly 
polished  and  the  detail  worked  out  with  great  care.  In 


434 


SIAM 


addition  to  repousse  work,  solid  silver  figures  and  other 
objects  are  cast  in  moulds  and  afterwards  finished  off, 
with  scrupulous  attention  to  detail,  by  the  hand  of  the 
artist. 

The  Lao  are  also  proficient  in  the  art  of  working 
silver,  their  designs  in  repousse  work  being  cjuite 
peculiar  and  very  effective.  One  of  the  most  common 
patterns  consists  of  circles  of  sharp  bosses  of  different 
size  and  shape  which  appear  on  the  tops  of  betel-boxes 
and  round  the  edges  of  drinking  cups  in  endless  repeti- 
tion. They  are  also  very  partial  to  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac  as  ornamentation  but  the  details  of  such  work 
are  not  so  carefully  rendered  by  them  as  by  the  Siamese. 
Bowls  and  vases  of  the  lotus  pattern  are  common  in 
both  Siamese  and  Lao  silverware. 

The  old-fashioned  weapons  which  all  the  Lao  and 
many  Siamese  still  possess,  are  often  heavily  mounted 
in  silver.  The  hilts  or  rather  handles,  and  sheaths  of 
swords  and  daggers  and  the  shafts  of  spears  are  encased 
in  thin  plates  of  the  metal,  the  plainness  of  which  is 
relieved  by  bosses  and  by  coils  of  thin  silver  wire  bound 
upon  them  in  fanciful  scroll-work  patterns.  The  handles 
of  swords  are  often  of  ivory  which  is  sometimes  cjuaintly 
carved  and  weapons  thus  composed  of  ivoiy  and  silver 
have  a very  handsome  appearance  but  the  blades,  though 
often  damascened  or  inlaid  with  small  spots  of  gold  or 
silver,  are  of  soft  untempered  iron  and  therefore  inferior 
for  figliting  jmrposes.  In  former  days  firearms  also 
were  end^ellished  with  silver.  The  heavy  iron  rifles 
and  brass  blunderbusses  used  in  the  ancient  wars  in 
Southern  Siam  are  still  ]u-eseiwed  in  some  of  the  Malay 
provinces  and  these  have  the  stocks  embossed  with  gold 
and  silver  and  the  barrels  inlaid  with  silver  flov'er- 
designs.  Two  iron  cannon  ]3resented  by  the  King  of 
Siam  to  Louis  XIV  of  France  and  long  afterwards  seized 
and  used  l;v  tlje  sans-cnlottes,  according  to  Carhde,  at 


LAO  SILVER. 


A SILVER  R>ETEL  SET 


SIAMESE  “niello”  SI  f.VEK-WARE. 


AN  ILLUMINATED  BOOK. 


ART 


435 


tlie  storming  of  the  Bastille,  were  heavily  inlaid  and 
ornamented  with  silver,  the  Avork  of  the  most  skilful 
sih^ersniiths  AAdiich  the  Court  of  Siam  at  that  time  could 
boast.  Similar  artillery  is  to  be  seen  in  the  Bangkok 
museum  noAV. 

In  the  capital  the  po^Dular  taste  in  sih^erAvare  has  of 
late  years  been  debauched  by  the  presence  of  numerous 
Chinese  siB’ersmiths  AAdio  turn  out  a large  amount  of 
Avork  of  a A^ery  low  artistic  Amine.  Stock  dragons 
prancing  aimlessly  on  nothing  and  elderly  Chinese 
gentlemen  strolling  in  groAms  of  unnatural-looking 
bamboos,  are  replacing  the  graceful  Siamese  nymphs 
and  angels,  for,  though  they  are  foreign  to  the  ideas 
and  traditions  of  the  people,  the  commercial  training  of 
the  Chinese  enables  them,  by  freely  adulterating  the 
silver,  to  offer  their  goods  at  a iDrice  impossible  to  the 
more  casual  and  leisurely  and  at  the  same  time  perhaps 
more  honest,  Siamese  artist.  The  efforts  of  the  Chinese 
to  copy  Siamese  designs  are  usually  beneath  contemi)t 
but  CAmn  these  by  reason  of  their  cheapness,  find 
ready  purchasers. 

Perhaps  the  most  distinctiAmly  Siamese  art  is  a kind 
of  ‘niello’  AA'ork  locally  called  Tliompat  AAdiich  has  been 
practised  in  the  country  for  about  eight  centuries  and 
in  AAdiich  a high  artistic  level  has  been  attained.  The 
process  consists  in  the  tracing  of  designs  on  sihmr  by 
means  of  gentle  repousse  AA’ork  and  aftei'Avards  filling 
up  the  slight  depressions  so  made  Avith  a black  metallic 
substance  obtained  from  lead,  co^iper  and  sihmr  melted 
together  AAdth  sulphur,  fused  into  place  and  polished 
until  a smooth,  even  surface  is  obtained,  on  AAdiich 
the  details  of  the  pattern  are  shoAvn  Avith  clearness  and 
effect  against  the  black  filling.  That  part  of  the  silver 
AAdiich  is  thus  left  exposed  is  usually  gilded  but  in  the 
more  ancient  siieciniens  Avliich  have  been  ji reserved, 
sudi  is  not  alAA’ays  the  case  and  some  of  the  most 


436 


SIAM 


celebrated  pieces  are  plain  white  and  black  metah 
The  original  home  of  the  art  is  said  to  have  been  Nakhon 
Sri  Thainmarat  (Ligor)  whither  it  may  have  come  from 
Persia  or  from  India,  rather  similar  work  being  known 
in  both  these  countries  from  veiy  ancient  times,  but  the 
making,  as  well  as  the  use  of  Thomixit  ware  has  long 
been  widely  distributed  through  the  countiy.  Trays, 
bowls,  betel-boxes,  dishes,  even  spoons  and  forks  were 
formerly,  and  are  still,  though  to  a less  extent,  made  in 
this  remarkable  ware  and  in  the  houses  of  well-to-do 
people  a certain  amount  of  it  is  to  be  found  in  daily 
use  for  ordinary  household  purposes.  Formerly  the 
patterns  most  used  were  representations  of  animals  or 
of  religious  emblems.  Drinking  bowls  usually  bore 
figures  of  Taypanom,  that  is  royally  clothed  postulants 
in  the  conventional  attitude  of  adoration,  encircled  by 
floral  designs  or  by  clouds,  almost  iiwariabl}^  with  a 
‘ Racha  Si,’  or  mythical  lion  enclosed  in  a circle  on  the 
bottom.  Modern  designs  are  mostly  floral  and  though 
the  metallic  filling  is  often  inferior  to  that  formerly 
used,  and  is  sometimes  carelessly  apj)lied  so  that  bubbles 
and  flaws  occur,  the  general  results  are  often  very  little, 
if  at  all  inferior  to  those  obtained  in  a former  age.  A 
great  deal  of  quite  inferior  Thompat  ware  is,  however^ 
made  at  the  present  time,  for  it  is  still  a good  deal  in 
demand,  though  the  public  does  not  care  to  pay  the  price 
which  first-class  work  demands.  The  value  of  genuine 
old  Thompat  ware  has  increased  very  much  of  late  years, 
as  most  of  it  has  been  bought  up  for  private  collections. 

Jewellery. — Almost  the  first  idea  which  presents 
itself  to  the  mind  of  a Siamese  when,  by  a turn  of 
fortune  he  finds  himself  i^ossessed  of  a little  spare  cash, 
is  the  purchase  of  jewellery,  and  this  no  matter  how^ 
low'  he  may  be  in  the  social  scale  or  how  little  the 
possession  of  gold  and  silver  trinkets  may  be  in  keeping 
wdth  his  personal  appearance  and  condition  of  life.  The 


ART 


437 


reason  for  this  lies,  not  so  niiicli  in  a desire  for  personal 
adornment  and  ostentations  display,  tlioiigli  in  these 
respects  the  women  of  Siam  are  in  no  way  l:>ehind  their 
sisters  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  but  rather  in  the 
fact  tliat  until  recently  the  state  of  society  was  such  that 
the  man  was  accounted  wise  who  kei^t  his  worldly  goods 
in  a conveniently  portable  form.  Moreover  the  mass  of 
the  x^eople  is  slow  to  ax)preciate  the  Police,  Courts  of 
Justice  and  other  adjuncts  of  chdlisation  as  x)rotectors 
of  xorox^erty,  or  the  fact  that  money  deposited  in  a bank 
is  less  likely  to  be  lost  than  wlien  adorning  the  x^ersons 
of  wives  and  children  or  concealed,  in  the  form  of 
jewellery  in  a bell-lock  teak  box.  Consecxnently  the 
jeweller’s  art  flonrishes  in  Siam  and  its  exponents  are 
highly  skilled  in  x^i'odnction,  not  only  of  jewellery  in 
the  forms  x^ecnliar  to  the  country  bnt  of  trinkets  and 
gauds  of  all  kinds  fashioned  according  to  Enrox')ean 
models.  Before  she  is  able  to  walk,  and  years  l)efore 
clothes  of  any  sort  become  a necessity,  the  Siamese  girl 
begins  to  wear  jewellery.  Bangles  of  silver,  or  of  gold 
if  the  x^ai'ents  are  very  well  off,  encircling  each  ankle 
and  a small  heart-shaped  ornament  called  chaping 
suspended  in  front  by  a cord  romid  the  waist  and 
covering  a veiy  small  x^art  of  the  tiny  boc1,y,  constitute 
the  everyday  ax^x^arel  during  years  of  infancy,  to  ^rliicli 
on  festive  occasions,  bracelets  and  a chain  necklace  are 
added.  When  the  tox^knot  of  hair  has  grown  long 
enough,  a gold  pin  is  used  to  dress  it ; in  four  or  five 
years  clothes  supersede  the  chaping  and  at  about  the 
age  of  13  the  jewels  of  infancy  are  all  abandoned 
and  the  ears  are  pierced  for  the  wearing  of  gold  or 
jewelled  ear-studs.  The  boys,  in  childhood,  wear 
little  or  no  jeAvellery  bnt  when  adolescent  the  modern 
youth  greatly  affects  flash  studs,  buttons,  watch-chains, 
rings  and  even  gold  bracelets,  a taste  vdiich,  however, 
usually  passes  off  with  the  arrival  of  years  of  discretion. 


438 


SIAM 


The  cutting  of  gems  is  not  well  understood  by 
Siamese  jewellers,  the  stones  which  thej^  sell  having  few 
facets  and  an  inferior  polish.  Native  sapphires  and 
rubies  are  often  ground  and  polished  into  an  oval  shape 
without  facets  at  all.  The  gold  used  is  very  pure  and 
soft.  Chain  bracelets  and  necklaces  are  usually  boiled 
as  a finishing  process  in  a solution,  the  chief  ingredients 
of  which  are  a red  earth  probably  containing  copper 
and  saltpetre.  This  operation  imparts  a deep  red 
colour.  Burmese  and  Malay  gold  ornaments  are  treated 
in  the  same  way,  the  ruddy  appearance  being  much 
prized  by  all  the  people  of  Indo-China,  though  to 
foreigners  it  seems  scarcely  an  embellishment. 

Draicing  and  Fainting. — In  these  arts  the  Siamese 
are  deficient.  The  sense  of  colour  appears  to  be  little 
more  than  rudimentary  while  that  of  form,  more  especially 
as  regards  still  life,  is  rarel}^  developed — knowledge  of 
perspective  is  crude.  At  the  same  time  a certain 
intuitive  capacity  for  elementary  drawing  is  very 
common,  and  an  untaught  Siamese  child  can  draw 
goblins,  demons,  elephants,  and  faiiy  princes  of  the 
usual  conventional  kind  with  an  almost  uncanii}^  skill, 
while  every  here  and  there  a master  is  found  whose 
work  reveals  some  appreciation  of  colour,  form,  and 
persxjective.  The  only  art  galleries  of  Siam  are  the 
walls  of  the  cloisters  which  surround  many  of  the 
larger  Phracliedi  ; and  the  interior  walls  of  temples. 
Here  are  depicted  scenes  from  the  life  of  the  Buddha, 
and  from  the  mass  of  legends  and  tales  of  ancient 
Brahmanians ; also  fanciful  glimpses  of  the  celestial 
al3odes  of  the  Tewadas  or  angels,  and  of  the  different 
Hells  which  superstition  has  provided  as  jilaces  of 
temporary  punishment  for  evil  livers.  In  all  except 
a very  few,  these  pictures  are  mere  jumbles  of  figures, 
intermingling  in  the  utmost  confusion  with  palaces, 
fortresses,  shij)s,  forests,  and  mountains  of  unimaginable 


ART 


439 


colour  and  hopelessly  impossible  proportion.  Perhaps 
the  best  of  such  works  are  in  the  cloisters  at  A¥at  Chang 
on  the  west  side  of  the  river  at  Bangkok.  The  frescoes 
on  the  interior  walls  of  the  royal  Wat  Phra  Keo,  within 
the  precincts  of  the  palace,  are  good  in  colour  but  betray 
not  the  smallest  consideration  for  the  relative  size  of 
various  objects  nor  any  but  the  most  casual  attention  to 
perspective.  Most  of  these  works  were  executed  early 
in  the  19th  century,  and  though  the  themes  are  taken 
from  ancient  Brahman  legend  or  from  the  Life  of  the 
Buddha,  European  figures  dressed  in  the  uniforms  and 
costumes  of  the  period  of  Waterloo  are  freely  introduced, 
as  are  wooden  ships  of  war  flying  the  flags  of  various 
western  nations.  Thus  the  Prince  Sithat  (Siddhartha) 
going  abroad,  is  escorted  by  serried  ranks  of  red-coated, 
white-breeched  soldiers  with  fixed  ba^mnets  ! In  fact, 
chronological  detail  receives  scarcely  more  respect  than 
it  does  at  the  hands  of  some  of  the  Old  Masters  of 
European  painting. 

A few  pictures  by  local  artists,  some  of  merit,  others 
of  none,  are  to  be  seen  on  the  walls  of  private  houses, 
and  recently  the  desire  for  mural  decoration  has 
increased  and  to  supply  this  want,  works,  usuall^^  of  a 
religious  character,  have  been  sent  to  Europe  and 
lithographed.  The  crude  results  of  this  enterprise  are 
now  exposed  for  sale  in  tlie  shops  of  the  capital,  and  are 
hawked  about  the  interior  by  pedlars.  Whether  or  not 
tliey  should  find  a place  in  a discpiisition  on  Art  is 
doubtful. 

Painting  on  porcelain  seems  to  have  been  at  one  time 
a flourishing  art.  The  making  of  porcelain,  as 
mentioned  in  Part  iv.  above,  was  carried  on  by  Chinese 
in  Siam  for  inaii}^  centuries.  Such  designs  as  were 
used  in  the  decoration  of  this  porcelain  were  however 
purely  Siamese,  from  vdiich  it  is  reasonalfie  to  infer 
that  they  were  executed,  in  part  at  least  by  natives  of 


440 


SIAM 


tlie  conntr}^  A very  large  amount  of  sucli  porcelain 
was  made  when  the  industry  was  at  its  best,  and  when 
later  on  the  local  manufacture  declined,  great  quantities 
were  imported  from  the  factories  in  China  to  supply 
the  demand. — It  seems  that  a part  of  this  foreign  ware 
arrived  in  the  countrty  in  a rough  unfinished  condition 
and  unpainted,  and  that  it  was  taken  in  hand  by  Siamese 
artists  maintained  at  the  capital,  and  embellished  by 
them  with  the  effective,  many-coloured  paintings  which 
distinguish  all  the  Siamese  porcelain  of  the  period,  and 
in  the  strict  conventionality  of  which  small  trace  of 
Chinese  influence  or  ideas  is  discernible. — The  designs 
are  chiefly  identical  with  those  used  in  ornamentation 
of  Tliompat  ware.  Taypanom  or  postulants  in  the 
attitude  of  prayer,  Nora  Singh,  queer,  satyr-like 
creatures,  half  angel  and  half  deer  (or  jhg  ?)  are 
det)icted  in  wdiite  on  jars  and  bowls,  with  a black 
background  besprinkled  with  objects  which  might  be 
like  flames  but  which  are  really  conventional  clouds. 
Five  colours  were  employed  for  this  ware,  whence  the 
name  Bencharong  by  which  it  is  usually  known.  I^otus 
designs  were  also  much  in  favour,  bowls  being  painted 
to  look  like  open  lotus  flowers  or  covered  with  panels, 
each  of  which  bore  a spray  of  the  five  sacred  lotus 
flowers  {Bencha  Pratum)  which  grow  in  the  seven  lakes 
of  Himaphan,  the  Siamese  fairy-land.  Other  patterns 
were  diapers  of  floral  and  other  design.  The  Taypanom 
or  Bencharong  bowls  once  very  common  but  now 
l^ecoming  scarce  are  invariably  painted  a deep  green 
on  the  inside  with  an  open  lotus  in  pink  at  the  bottom. 
The  colours  are  rich  and  thickly  laid  on,  and  are  always 
glazed  over  on  the  outside  but  are  sometimes  left 
partially  dull  on  the  inside. 

Weaving  and  Embroidery. — It  has  already  been 
remarked  that  weaving  has  always  been  considered 
a suitable  employment  for  the  women  of  Siam,  even  for 


LAO  GII^L  WEAVING, 


ART 


441 


those  of  the  highest  rank,  and  much  of  the  work  done 
by  them  deserves,  on  account  of  the  richness  and  beauty 
of  design  to  be  included  in  the  category  of  art.  A few 
years  ago  the  costume  invariably  worn  by  the  nobility 
at  Court  functions  in  Bangkok  consisted  of  a tunic  made 
of  rich  silk,  cloth  shot  with  gold  and  woven  in  an 
intricate  diaper  pattern,  with  a silk  Panung  or  hitched- 
up  skirt,  below  it.  The  uniforms  of  European  style 
which  are  now  the  rule  have  to  a great  extent  replaced 
the  national  full  dress  costume,  but  though  the  demand 
for  brocades  and  silks  has  in  consequence  fallen  oh,  the 
looms  of  Korat  and  Chieng  Mai  still  produce  a good 
deal  of  the  beautiful  material  for  which  they  were 
famous  in  the  past.  As  a rule  the  Panung  is  woven 
quite  plain  in  the  middle,  and  it  is  only  in  the  deep 
fringe  that  the  fair  artists  give  the  rein,  always  within 
the  l30unds  of  coiwention  to  their  fancy.  Here  all  sorts  of 
intricate  designs  are  worked  out  following  one  favourite 
general  style,  having  sharp  angles  of  contrasting  colours 
running  up  into  the  cloth  and  separated  from  the  body 
of  the  fabric  by  a deep  ]3and  of  many  shades  and  often 
heavily  shot  with  gold.  Many  very  beautiful  specimens 
of  such  cloths,  presents  made  from  time  to  time  by  the 
King,  are  preseiwed  at  the  courts  of  the  Chiefs  of  the 
Malay  provinces  where  they  are  used  chiefly  as  palls  at 
funerals  of  the  nobility.  In  Chieng  Mai  where  the 
skirts  of  the  ladies  are  not  hitched  up  and  consequently 
afford  more  space  for  display,  the  fanciful  work  is  not 
confined  to  the  edges  of  garments  but  is  spread  all  over 
them  ill  liues,  bands,  isolated  flowers,  diaper  pattern 
and  all  manner  of  other  design. 

The  art  of  constructing  imitation  flowers  from  the 
parts  of  other  and  real  flowers,  which  is  practised  witli 
extraordinary  skill  by  Siamese  women,  may  well  find 
a place  in  this  chapter.  The  commonest  flowers  of  tlie 
country  are  taken  to  jiieces,  and  their  petals,  stamens. 


442 


SIAM 


etc.,  are  used  to  construct  all  kinds  of  exotic  blooms, 
faithfully  copied  from  drawings  and  joaintings,  and  so 
deftly  and  delicately  is  this  done,  so  little  do  the  slim 
taper  fingers  soil  the  material,  that  the  eye  is  completely 
deceived  by  the  result.  Thus  a dinner  table  decorated 
with  a display  of  tea  roses  or  dahlias  causes  surprise  in 
a country  where  such  flowers  do  not  thrive,  until  a 
careful  examination  rcAmals  the  fact  that  each  bud  and 
bloom  is  made  from  the  petals  of  the  common  Alamanda, 
while  a bouquet  of  sprays  of  the  rarest  orchids  turns 
out  to  be  comprised  of  hundreds  of  little  Mali  (Jasmin) 
flowers  dismembered  and  reconstructed  in  a totally 
different  form  with  a skill  which  completely  deceives 
the  casual  observer ! 


Archaeology 

Many  circumstances  have  combined  to  prevent  any 
great  accumulation  of  archaeological  remains  in  Siam. 
'Idle  heat  and  humidity  of  the  climate,  the  rapid  growth 
of  vegetation  and,  in  places,  the  deposition  of  alluvial 
soil,  have  all  contributed  to  destroy  or  to  bury  beyond 
liope  of  recovery  most  of  the  vestiges  of  man’s  handi- 
w^ork,  so  that  although  the  country  has  been  inhabited 
from  very  remote  times  by  a population  once  much 
larger  than  that  of  to-day,  of  considerable  enlightenment 
and  of  no  mean  industrial  and  artistic  attainments,  very 
little  remains  now  to  attest  its  former  condition  beyond 
the  ruins  of  the  temples  and  religious  monuments  with 
wdiich  the  people  of  the  past,  like  their  now  living 
descendants,  invariably  surrounded  themselves.  The 
fact  that  the  dwelling-houses  of  the  Siamese  have  always 
been  constructed  of  light  and  perishalfle  materials  has 
of  course  assisted  largely,  not  only  in  the  complete 
eflacement  of  the  towns  and  villages  which  have  at  one 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


443 


time  or  another  existed  in  eA^ery  district  of  the  country, 
hnt  also  in  the  destruction  of  all  those  other  relics  of 
hnmanity  AAdiich,  in  latitudes  Avhere  a more  rigorous 
climate  has  conduced  to  the  construction  of  snhstantial 
habitations,  haA^e  been  presei’A^ed  AAnth  the  houses  con- 
taining them  to  excite  the  admiration  or  curiosity  of 
a remote  posterity.  Again,  the  custom  of  cremating 
the  dead  AAdiich  has  certainly  prcA-ailed  CA^er  since  the 
inhabitants  emerged  from  the  primitiA^e  saAxage  state, 
has  robbed  Siam  of  a source  of  archaeological  remains 
AAdiich  in  many  lands  is  the  student’s  chief  or  only  aid, 
for  the  desire,  so  common  among  the  ciAdlised  races  of 
mankind,  to  perpetuate  the  inemoiy  of  the  dead  by 
striking  and  indestructible  monuments  and  to  surround 
the  body  in  the  tomb  Avith  the  A-arions  apxinrtenances 
of  life,  has  always  been  lacking  in  the  inhabitants  of 
Siam,  AAdiose  philosophy  has  guided  them  rather  toAA-ards 
the  dispersion  of  all  tangilde  aids  to  memory  of  the 
deceased,  and  aa4io  haA-e  been  content  to  accept  the 
complete  annihilation  of  the  body  intended  by  nature, 
only  marking  occasionally  the  Apot  AAdiere  the  corpse 
of  some  one  or  other  of  their  great  ones  AAxas  reduced 
to  ashes,  by  a nameless  spire  all  memory  of  the  origin 
of  which  is  usually  soon  forgotten. 

The  great  perennial  rpiestions  of  the  ^ohence  and 
u'liitlier  of  mankind  liaAU.  iieAur  at  any  time  aroused 
A'iolent  curiosity  in  the  Siamese.  Indeed,  as  regards 
past  and  future  existences  of  the  soul  there  can  be  for 
them  no  question  at  all,  for  each  man  accepts  absolutely 
and  AA'ithout  hesitation  the  belief  in  transmigration  in 
which  he  has  lieen  brought  n]>,  and  AAdiich  is  for  him  no 
debateable  theory  but  an  actual,  indisputable  fact.  As 
to  AAdiat  AAunt  before  him  and  AAdiat  comes  after  in  the 
actual  liAung  Avorld,  the  aAurage  man  is  at  most  content 
until  a Augue  knowledge  of  historA^  extending  back  for 
a centuiy  or  so,  AAdiile  his  philosophy  teaches  him,  that 


444 


SIAM 


the  future  belongs  to  j30sterity  and  is  no  concern  of  liis. 
It  will  readily  be  understood  that,  owing  to  the  various 
causes  aboveinentioned,  the  science  of  archaeology  has 
not  been  much  cultivated  in  Siam,  and  in  fact  it  seems 
probable  that  not  more  than  fire  and  thirty  years  ago 
there  was  scarcely  an  individual  in  the  country  who  had 
made  any  study  of  the  matter,  while  the  nation  as  a 
whole  was  supremely  indifferent  as  to  almost  eveiything 
concerning  its  forebears. 

The  first  serious  undertaking  of  archaeological  re- 
search in  Siam  was  due  to  French  enterprise.  Ever 
since  the  middle  of  last  century,  when  the  naturalist 
and  explorer  Mouhot  lost  his  life  while  wandering  alone 
in  the  forests  of  Further  India,  the  hinterlands  of  Kam- 
bodia  and  Siam  appear  to  have  had  a peculiar  fascination 
for  Frenchmen  of  the  more  adventurous  sort.  The 
exploration  of  the  Mehkong  valley  by  Gamier  and  his 
colleagues  and  his  descriptions  of  the  ruined  cities  of 
Siam  seen  in  the  course  of  his  travels,  aroused  consider- 
able interest  in  the  archaeology  of  this  country,  while 
of  the  many  Frenchmen  vdio  have  made  the  excursion 
from  Saigon  to  the  magnificent  ruins  of  Angkor,  now 
alas,  no  longer  belonging  to  Siaui,  few  can  have  failed 
to  experience  a desire  to  penetrate  the  mysterious  lands 
beyond  and  to  reveal  to  the  world  the  secrets  which 
the.y  have  felt  must  certainl}^  lie  hidden  there.  The 
investigations  and  j^ublications  of  the  Pavie  Mission 
threw  much  light  upon  the  probable  condition  of  life 
of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Siam,  while  Fournereau  by 
his  four  years  of  labour  from  1891  to  1895,  which 
resulted  in  that  handsome  work  Le  Siam  Ancien, 
iDrought  together  in  one  volume  all  the  archaeological 
evidence  then  available  and,  though  committing  sundry 
errors  of  deduction,  gave  to  the  study  of  the  science  so 
far  as  concerns  Siam,  a prominence  to  which  it  had  not 
l:>efore  attained.  Meanwhile  the  Italian,  Gerini,  was 


ENTRANCE  TO  WAT  PHKA  PRANG,  SAWANKAEOK 
(cYiv'CVl  lOOO  A.D.). 

(Solid  P>locks  of  Lateritc.) 


WAT  CHANG  TONG,  SAWANKALOK. 
Ciica  A.i).  900  (Latcritc). 


ARCHAEOLOGY  445 

prosecHting,  dnriiig  a long  residence  in  tlie  country 
itself,  researciies  on  this  snlDject  which  have  placed  him 
in  the  very  first  rank  of  the  enthusiasts,  researches  to 
which  are  due  corroborations  and  corrections  of  the 
French  inquirers  which  have  all  tended  greatly  to  the 
advance  of  the  science.  The  Siamese,  also,  of  the 
upper  and  more  educated  and  intellectual  class,  headed 
by  the  King  himself,  awoke  some  dozen  years  or  so  ago 
to  a great  interest  in  the  subject;  old  writings  were 
consulted,  ancient  cities  were  located  and,  on  being 
searched  for,  their  ruins  were  discovered  hidden  away 
in  forests  where  for  ages  they  had  mouldered  uidaiown 
to  any  save  a few  ignorant  country  people.  The  ruins 
of  Ayuthia,  a city  less  than  150  years  ago  the  centre  of 
the  Siamese  universe,  were  until  a short  wliile  ago 
objects  accounted  entirely  without  interest  even  by  the 
people  of  the  thriving  modern  town  but  a few  hundred 
yards  distant  and,  except  for  the  idle  speculation  of  an 
occasional  passing  foreigner,  were  left  to  the  undisturbed 
occupancy  of  a few  monks  of  contemplative  turn  and 
of  Chinese  market  gardeners  who  cleared  away  patches 
of  the-all  enveloping  jungle  and  planted  orchards  of 
custard  apples  amid  the  refuse  of  broken  bricks,  tiles, 
stucco  and  ])ottery  which  covered  the  ground  in  all 
directions.  These  ruins  as  well  as  those  of  other 
ancient  cities  most  notable  in  Siamese  history,  have 
now  been  laid  bare  of  jungle  and  debris.  At  the 
expense  of  the  Government,  the  sites  and  remains  of 
their  principal  buildings  have  been  identified  and 
museums  have  been  established  on  the  spot,  where 
objects  of  interest  from  time  to  time  unearthed,  are 
carefully  preserved. 

Of  the  archaeological  periods  prior  to  that  which  has 
been  called  the  Brahman-Ihiddhist  period,  that  is 
earlier  than  about  500  b.c.,  Siam  has  little  evidence  to 
offer.  Celts  of  the  neolithic  age  have  been  found  in  a 


446 


SIAM 


few  localities  but  of  the  immense  number  of  years  which 
must  have  elapsed  between  the  time  when  neolithic  man 
hunted  through  the  jungles,  and  the  introduction  of 
Brahmanism  and  Buddhism  into  the  country,  absolutely 
no  vestiges  have  hitherto  been  discovered.  From  the 
latter  event  onwards,  however,  remains,  chiefly  of 
buildings  and  objects  connected  with  religious  worship, 
occur,  if  not  abundantly,  at  least  in  sufficient  number 
to  serve  as  some  indication  as  to  the  condition  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  country.  Amongst  the  oldest 
cities  of  Siam  are  Sawankalok  and  Sukhothai,  and  near 
the  ruins  of  these  are  to  be  found  shrines  built  of 
laterite  blocks  said  to  date  back  two  thousand  years  and 
showing  in  their  style  of  architectiire  a distinct  con- 
nection of  idea  between  the  people  who  made  them  and 
the  races  who  built  or  excavated  from  the  rock  the 
ancient  temples  of  different  parts  of  India.  These 
shrines,  the  best  known  examj^les  of  which  are  those  of 
the  Vulture  Nest  Hill  at  Sawankalok,  are  certainly  the 
oldest  stone  buildings  in  Siam.  They  were  followed  by 
more  elaborate  Brahmanic  temples,  also  of  laterite  but 
of  greater  size,  considerably  ornamented  and  decorated 
with  symbols  of  the  religion,  and  with  representations 
of  various  deities,  and  these  in  their  turn  were 
succeeded  by  temples  and  pagodas  of  the  Brahniano- 
Buddhist  style  which  found  its  ultimate  expression  at 
xVngkor  AVat  and  Angkor  Thom  near  the  great  lake.  Tale 
Sap,  in  Kambodia.  Such  buildings  were  not  confined 
to  an,y  one  ])art,  for  their  ruins  are  to  be  seen  on  or  near 
the  sites  of  most  of  the  numerous  cities  which  sprang 
up  all  over  the  country.  The  material  used  in  their 
construction  was  apparently  that  most  easily  obtain- 
able in  the  locality  where  they  were  built.  Thus 
in  Kambodia  and  in  Eastern  Siam,  sandstone  and 
sometimes  blue  slate  were  employed,  images  and  other 
embellishments  being  carved  in  the  stone  itself.  The 


KHMER  RUINS,  PIMAI. 


KUIXS  OF  THE  SANCTUARY  AT  PIMAI. 
(Sandstc  )iie.) 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


447 


finest  Siamese  examples  of  this  work  are  to  he  seen  in 
the  ruins  of  Pimai  on  the  xDlateau  east  of  Ivorat,  in 
which  the  heantifully  executed  sculpture  and  carvings, 
and  the  massive  proportions  of  the  buildings  produce 
that  combination  of  lightness  and  solidity  which  is  one 
of  the  most  striking  qualities  of  the  style.  In  the 
ancient  capitals  of  Northern  Siam,  Sawankalok, 
Sukhotliai,  and  Pitsanulok,  huge  blocks  of  laterite  were 
used,  which  stone  being  rough  and  ill-adapted  to 
sculpture,  was  cut  out  in  the  rough  and  used  as 
a foundation  for  a very  hard  and  dural^le  stucco  super- 
inij^osed  upon  it,  in  which  a wealth  of  detail  was  worked 
out  which  gave  to  the  finished  structure  all  the 
appearance  of  the  sandstone  buildings  of  the  east.  In 
Central  Siam,  where  stone  of  any  kind  was  difficult  to 
obtain,  buildings  of  which  the  ruins  are  now  visible 
were  usually  of  brick  overlaid  with  stucco. 

In  spite  of  the  hardness  of  the  stucco,  time,  and 
neglect  have  stripped  the  facings  from  most  of  the 
laterite  and  brick  buildings,  and  in  maii}^  instances  the 
masonry  itself  has  been  split  and  overturned  by  the 
roots  of  great  trees  growing  around  and  upon  it.  For 
the  most  part,  therefore,  the  ancient  buildings  of  Siam 
except  those  made  of  sandstone,  are  now  mere  skeletons 
of  laterite  or  brick,  but  here  and  there  sx^ecimens  have 
withstood  the  ravages  of  time  and  escajied  the  destroy- 
ing hand  of  man  and  stand  to-day  as  witnesses  to  the 
high  artistic  effect  which  was  obtainable  through  the 
humble  medium  of  plaster,  and  as  models  for  the 
builders  of  the  present  time. 

The  sanctuary  or  temple  at  Lopburi,  consisting  of 
three  heavy  blunt  spires  surmounting  small  dark  image 
chambers,  is  a curious  examx)le  of  mixed  material,  for 
here  the  main  iiart  of  the  building  is  composed  of 
laterite  blocks  of  cyclox)ean  size  to  which  the  stucco 
with  its  delicate  mouldings  and  tracery  still  clings  in 


448 


SIAM 


patches,  while  the  apex  of  each  gable,  the  sides  and 
lintels  of  the  doorways  and  part  of  the  inner  structure 
are  of  sandstone  finely  carved.  The  building  is  of  the 
0th  century  a.d.,  and  is,  in  fact,  a link  between  the 
eastern  or  Kambodian,  and  the  western  or  Siamese 
methods  of  construction.  The  beautiful  Wat  Phra 
Prang  at  Sawankalok  and  Wat  Sri  Sawai  at  Sukhothai, 
which  were  completed  about  the  lltli  century  a.d., 
represent,  with  the  Wat  Chinnaraj  at  Pitsanulok,  the 
highest  excellence  of  stucco  and  laterite  building.  The 
ruins  of  brick  and  stucco  Phrachedi  and  Phraprang,  or 
reliquary  shrines  of  the  purely  Buddhist  and  Brahmano- 
Buddhist  styles  at  Phrapatfim,  Phrapadon,  Ratburi, 
Lopburi,  and  elsewhere  in  Central  Siam  are  of  all  ages, 
and  some  of  them  are  doubtless  amongst  the  most 
ancient  relics  of  man  in  the  country.  Very  few  of  the 
older  ones,  however,  retain  much  of  their  stucco 
mouldings,  but  as  this  style  came,  with  the  concentra- 
tion of  the  population  in  Central  Siam,  entirely  to 
supplant  the  use  of  stone  of  any  kind,  there  are  fine 
examples  of  it  dating  from  more  recent  times,  still 
extant  in  many  parts. 

All  the  cities  of  Siam  which  were  of  any  note  were 
enclosed  within  defensive  walls.  Sukhothai,  Sawankalok 
and  Lamphum  (Labong),  the  most  ancient  northern 
cities,  possess  double  or  triple  defences  of  laterite  walls, 
sections  of  which  are  still  visible,  barriers  of  great, 
evenly  hewn  blocks  of  stone  standing  in  dense  and 
lonely  forests,  the  silent  witnesses  of  human  activit}^ 
long  passed  and  almost  forgotten,  while  the  cities  of 
Central  and  Southern  Siam  from  the  earliest  times,  and 
those  constructed  after  the  thirteenth  century  in  all  parts 
of  the  country,  had  walls  usually  forming  an  outer  and  an 
inner  circle,  of  brick  and  mortar.  The  brick  fortifica- 
tions of  Chieng  Mai  in  the  north,  of  Lopburi  in  the 
centre,  of  Korat  in  the  east  and  of  Xakhon  Sri  Thammarat 


(Laterite  Sandstone.) 


PHRACHEDI  ENCLOSING  THE  ASHES  OF  EARLY  KINGS  OF  AYUTHIA, 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


449 


(Ligor)  in  the  south,  the  first  three  dating  from  about 
the  thirteenth  centnry  and  the  fourth  perhaps  seven 
hundred  }^ears  older,  are  all  in  a state  of  fair  reserva- 
tion and  exhibit  remarkably  similar  characteristics  of 
form  and  construction. 

The  remains  of  Ayuthia  and  those  of  Lopburi  are  of 
peculiar  interest  in  that  they  represent  all  that  is  left 
of  vdiat  may  be  called  the  mediaeval  period  of  Siamese 
history.  The  ruins  of  Ayuthia,  still  bearing  in  all 
directions  the  marks  of  the  fire  by  which  the  Burmese 
conquerors  reduced  the  city  almost  to  its  present  con- 
dition a hundred  and  fifty  years  ago,  having  now  been 
carefully  cleared,  are  preseiwed  as  well  as  may  be. 
Sufficient  is  left  of  them  to  convey  an  idea  of  the  great- 
ness and  strength  of  the  former  capital.  Sections  of 
the  outer  and  inner  walls  still  remain  erect,  huge  masses 
of  ragged  brick-work,  while  the  sites  and  foundations  of 
the  palaces  and  other  buildings  the  prototypes  of  many 
of  those  now  standing  in  Bangkok,  can  be  identified. 
Here  also  are  remains  of  churches  and  houses  built  by 
the  Europeans  who  frequented  Siam  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  At  Lopburi  are  the  ruins  of  the  Siamese 
Palace  of  King  Phra  Narai  and  nearby  stand  the  remains 
of  the  house  and  chapel  where  his  minister  the  celebrated 
Faulkon  lived  and  practised  his  new-found  Roman 
Catholic  faith,  when  in  attendance  upon  his  master  in 
his  rural  retreat. 

But  these  ruins  at  Ayuthia  and  Lopburi  stand  upon 
a soil  comprised  of  the  refuse  of  yet  earlier  cities  and 
hold  in  their  midst  the  crumbling  remains  of  buildings 
of  far  older  date,  for  both  the  sites  were  occupied  by 
cities  long  before  Ayuthia  became  the  capital  of  all  Siam. 
The  city  of  Dwarapuri  or  Bwarawati  and  later  of  Kong 
Sano  or  Shahr-i-Xao,  occupied  the  site  of  Ayuthia  during 
the  centuries  of  Sukliothai  ascendency,  and  indeed  the 
Burmese  knew  the  city  of  Ayuthia  itself  by  the  name  of 
2 F 


450 


SIAM 


Dwarawati  at  the  time  of  their  later  wars  against  it. 
At  Lopburi  the  King  of  Aynthia  con  Id  look  from  the 
windows  of  his  summer  palace  upon  ancient  Khmer 
temples,  then  as  now  ruins  of  hoary  age. 

InscrijDtions  of  stone,  usually  grey-green  limestone 
of  very  fine  grain  or  blue  slate,  have  been  found  in 
different  parts  of  Siam.  These  are  in  Pali,  Sanscrit, 
Kambodian  (Khmer)  and  in  Siamese,  and,  though  by 
no  means  abundant,  have  been  of  considerable  service 
in  proving  the  approximate  dates,  and  the  extent  of  the 
influence,  of  the  different  races  which  have  occupied 
the  country.  The  oldest  inscription  is  in  Pali  and  was 
found  in  the  j^rovince  of  Kedah  until  recently  a x^art  of 
Southern  Siam.  These  bear  dates  of  the  5th  century 
A.D.  and  are  clearly  of  Indian  origin.  Further  up  the 
coast  at  Takoax^a  an  inscrix^tion  on  stone  was  recently 
found  which  has  not  yet  been  decixDhered  but  which 
ax^pears  to  be  in  an  ancient  language  of  Southern  India 
and  is  supposed  to  date  from  the  5th  century  also.  In 
the  x^i'ovince  of  Lakhon  across  the  Peninsula  and  not 
many  miles  from  Takoapa,  stelae  inscribed  with  Pali 
and  Sanscrit  characters  and  a Pali  inscription  on  brass 
have  been  discovered  and  have  been  identified  as  of  the 
eighth  and  ninth,  centuries  a.d.  Also  terra  cotta  tablets 
inscribed  with  the  Buddhist  x^rofession  of  faith  in  Pali, 
of  a distinctly  Indian  style  of  character  known  to  have 
been  in  use  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  were  recovered 
at  Plirapatilm  in  Central  Siam  during  the  repairing  of 
the  great  Phrachedi  in  1857. 

It  ax>pears  to  have  been  the  custom  from  the  earliest 
days  of  Buddhism  for  devotees  to  scribble  formidfe 
containing  axioms  of  the  Buddhist  faith  on  every 
convenient  surface  in  and  around  a holy  x^lace.  One  of 
the  formulae  most  commonly  used  consisted  of  a few 
Pali  words  the  meaning  of  which  may  be  rendered  thus  ; 

‘ The  effects  which  sx^ring  from  every  cause  and  the 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


451 


way  of  mitigation  of  these  same  are  set  forth  by  him 
who  has  gone.  This  is  the  teaching  of  the  Great  Ascetic  ’ 
— and  these  are  foniid  scratched  on  stone  or  impressed 
in  clay  wherever  the  cult  of  Buddha  has  flourished  in 
Siam  not  less  than  elsewhere.  Cday  tablets  bearing, 
some  a representation  of  the  Buddha  on  the  front  with 
Buddhist  scriptural  words  stamped  on  the  back  and 
others  the  impression  of  one  or  other  of  the  Brahmanical 
Divinities,  have  been  found  in  the  caves  of  Mat  Harn 
near  the  town  of  Trang  on  the  Avest  coast  of  Southern 
Siam,  a good  AAny  south  of  Takoapa.  These  clay  tablets 
locally  called  Phra  Phim  or  ‘ Stamped  God’  are  AAnrthy 
of  special  note.  Many  hundreds  liaA^e  been  found  on  the 
cave  floors  usually  lying  in  pairs  face  to  face  so  that 
the  impression  on  the  front  may  be  preserved.  They 
are  dug  out  from  beneath  a layer  of  bat’s  guano  some- 
times more  than  three  feet  thick  and  AAdien  first  re- 
coA^ered  are  quite  soft  but  soon  harden  on  exposure  to 
the  air.  Specimens  AAdiich  have  been  examined  by  the 
British  Museum  authorities  are  pronounced  to  date  from 
the  tAA^elfth  century  and  to  be  identical  in  apj^earance  AAuth 
tablets  from  Kashmir,  Tibet  and  parts  of  Xortli  West 
India,  AAdiere  also  they  are  found  on  the  floors  of  caA^es. 
It  seems  probable  that  the  tablets  may  have  been  brought 
back  from  India  by  returning  pilgrims  and  deposited 
in  the  caAns  for  safe  preservation  or  perhaps  as  offerings 
to  local  shrines,  the  occurrence  of  presentments  of  the 
Buddha  and  of  Brahman  gods  indicating  that  the  said 
pilgrims  probably  offered  their  deA’otions  impartially  to 
the  older  religion  and  the  neAver  cult. 

The  earliest  Khmer  inscriptions  on  stone  AAdiich  haA^e 
hitherto  been  found  in  Siam  are  at  Chantaburi  and 
Korat  and  are  of  date  about  the  ninth  century  a.d. 
Both  Sanscrit  and  the  Khmer  language  Avere  employed 
and  the  inscriptions  are  chiefly  concerned  AAuth  setting 
forth  the  names  of  kings  and  recording  the  good  deeds 


452 


SIAM 


of  the  pious.  Inscriptions  in  Khmer  of  later  date  are 
fairly  common,  though  those  which  have  been  found  are 
probably  as  nothing  in  comparison  with  the  great 
number  which  it  may  be  supposed  still  lie  hidden 
beneath  the  ruins  of  ancient  places  in  many  parts  of 
the  country.  Known  specimens  occur  at  Phrapatum, 
Suj^han,  Lopburi  (a  particular!}^  fine  example  dated  about 
1022  A.D.),  and  elsewhere,  and  mark  the  period  of 
greatest  Kambodian  influence  in  Siam.  In  the  13th 
century  the  first  stelae  adorned  with  Siamese  characters 
appear,  chiefly  at  Sukhothai,  the  Khmer  capital  which 
by  that  time  had  become  very  largely  Siamese.  Sub- 
sequent inscriptions  employ  either  or  both  the  Khmer 
and  Siamese  character,  but  towards  the  1 5th  century  the 
former  disappears  finally. 

The  remains  of  stone,  and  bronze  sacred  images  are 
the  commonest  form  of  antiquarian  relic  found  in  Siam 
and  the  site  of  each  ancient  city  is  still  covered  with 
them,  although  thousands  have  been  collected  by  the 
devout  and  consigned  to  places  of  safety.  Brahma, 
Siva,  Vishnu,  Lakshmi,Ganesh  and  of  course  the  Buddha, 
are  the  usual  subjects  of  these  productions  which,  in 
fragments  or  entire,  roughly  made  or  of  the  minutest 
and  most  intricate  workmanship,’’are  unearthed  whenever 
a railway  cutting  is  made,  a foundation  is  dug  or  a 
ploughshare  is  driven  upon  any  of  the  innumerable 
spots  once  sacred  to  the  uses  of  religion  or  which  were 
the  dwelling-places  of  dead  and  gone  generations  of 
men.  In  Southern  Siam,  particularly  on  the  west  coast 
of  the  peninsula,  images  of  Shiva,  ATshnu  and  Lakshmi,. 
known  to  the  Siamese  as  Phra  In  Suen,  Phra  Narai  and 
Phra  Karet  carved  in  a stone  not  found  locally,  have 
been  discovered  on  the  hill-tops  or  engulfed  in  the 
trackless  jungle,  and  so  old  that  even  the  legends 
concerning  them  have  been  forgotten.  Modern  in- 
vestigators assisted  by  inscrij^tions  found  near  by  con- 


STONE  IMAGE  OF  “gAXESHA”  IN  WAT  PHKAKEO,  BANGKOK. 


( 


: 


' ' '71 

■;':  i 


i 

I 

j 


■ "I 


J 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


453 


elude  that  these  may  have  been  brought  over  from  India 
by  perhaps  the  very  earliest  Brahmans  who  found  their 
way  into  Further  India.  Elsewhere  in  the  country  round 
about  the  sites  of  ancient  cities,  the  Brahman  gods  are 
found  side  by  side  with  statues  of  the  Buddha  in  all  the 
traditional  poses.  While  amongst  the  most  ancient 
ruins  the  images  of  Brahman  deities  outnumber  those 
of  the  Buddha,  in  localities  of  more  recent  settlement 
the  former  become  less  frequent  until  when  modern 
towns  are  considered  it  is  found  that  they  have  practically 
disappeared  in  favour  of  the  latter.  It  is  a significant 
fact,  however,  that  in  the  upper  regions  of  Northern 
Siam,  Brahman  images  are  rarely  or  never  met  with. 
The  better  executed  of  the  old  images  of  the  Buddha 
have  in  many  cases  been  installed  in  modern  temples 
and  many  of  the  best  have  been  removed  to  Bangkok. 
Here  and  there,  also,  preserved  in  the  precincts  of  temples 
are  found  symbolic  relics  of  Buddhism  carved  in  stone, 
which  farmers  have  unearthed  while  ploughing,  while 
of  the  lesser  Brahmano-Buddhist  Gods,  Rain-Gods, 
Earth-Gods,  AVar-Gods  and  angels  (Tewada)  of  every 
description  and  rank,  a large  number  of  examples  have 
l^eeii  rescued.  The  museums  of  Bangkok  and  Ayuthia 
contain  sj^ecimens  of  brass-work,  porcelain,  and  wood- 
carving which  have  been  gathered  from  among  different 
ruins  and  of  which  many  have  a considerable  archaeo- 
logical value. 

Siamese  Archaeology,  primitive  ‘though  it  be,  has 
already  proved  of  use  in  corroborating  or  correcting 
theories  of  students  as  to  the  origin  and  the  racial 
affinities  of  former  inhabitants  of  the  country,  and 
regarding  the  important  question  of  the  relative  im- 
portance, from  time  to  time  and  in  different  localities, 
of  the  Brahman  and  Buddhist  religions.  The  study  of 
the  science  having  recently  received  much  impetus  from 
the  awakening  of  Siamese  interest,  will  probably  advance 


454 


SIAM 


rapidly  in  the  future  and  there  can  he  little  doubt  that 
many  of  the  mysterious  gaps  and  silences  which  inter- 
vene in  the  history  of  the  country  are  destined  ultimately 
to  he  filled  in  l^y  the  effects  of  this  awakening. 


Architecture 

In  modern  Siamese  architecture  Indian  influences  are 
plainly  discernilDle  and  there  seems  to  be  little  doubt 
that  the  first  knowledge  of  the  art  of  building  anything 
more  than  the  rudest  of  hut  shelters,  came  from  the 
great  continent  to  the  West.  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  this  happened  at  different  times  and  by  different 
ways.  The  Southern  Indian  Dravidian  races  who  came 
to  the  country  by  way  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  and 
through  various  other  coast  districts  of  Further  India, 
doubtless  introduced  their  own  ideas  of  building,  ideas 
from  which,  with  the  passage  of  centuries,  the  typical 
Khmer  style  through  gradual  stages  was  evolved.  At 
a somewhat  later  date  another  and  very  different  set  of 
ideas  came  to  the  country  with  the  Buddhist  Indian 
traders  and  colonists  and  a further  edition  of  these  was 
brought  in  from  the  north,  having  been  tramsmitted 
from  Northern  India,  through  Burma  and  Assam,  to 
the  Lao-Tai  races  near  the  borders  of  South  West  China 
and  spread  by  them  through  the  northern  parts  of 
Further  India.  Thus  two  distinct  st}des  of  architecture 
were  in  early  times  in  contact  in  Siam,  the  eastern, 
Khmer,  or  Brahman  style,  ponderous  but  highly  ornate 
and  the  western,  or  Buddhist,  light  and  airy  but  severe. 
The  former  was  expressed  in  stone,  sandstone  or  laterite, 
laid  in  parallel  courses  and  closely  fitted  without  mortar 
or  cement  of  any  kind.  In  the  latter,  bricks  were  used 
with  ordinary  mortar.  In  neither  system  was  the 
principle  of  the  arch  known,  doorwa^^s,  windows  and 


TYPICAL  PHRA  PRANG. 


PHRAPATUM,  THE  LARGEST  PHRACHEDI,  OR  BUDDHIST 
RELIC  SHRINE,  IN  SIAM. 


ARCHITECTUKE 


455 


other  openings  being  scpiare  with  stone  or  timber 
lintels,  carried  up  to  a point  by  means  of  a slight 
overlapping  of  ascending  horizontal  courses.  The 
ornamentation  of  the  eastern  style  was  effected  by  a 
profusion  of  sculpture  in  the  stone  itself  while  that  of 
the  western  style  was  obtained  by  stucco  mouldings  on 
both  stone  and  brick.  The  use  of  uncovered  stone  and 
sculxDtnre  appears  to  have  been  generally  abandoned 
about  the  11th  centniy  a.d.,  both  styles  being  thereafter 
rendered  in  brick,  mortar  and  stucco.  By  slow  degrees 
also  the  styles  themselves  amalgamated  and  the  char- 
acteristic Siamese  architecture  of  later  times  was 
evolved.  One  of  the  most  distinctive  features  of  the 
eastern  stjde  was  the  Fliva  Prang  the  blunt  and  angular 
spire  snrmonnting  Brahman  temples  and  image  houses, 
sx)ecimens  of  which  are  to  be  seen  towering  above  the 
most  ancient  Khmer  buildings,  while  an  equally  dis- 
tinctive feature  of  the  western  style  was  the  Phracliedi 
or  Buddhist  relic  shrine,  a tapering  circular  monument, 
sometimes  of  great  height,  terminating  in  a tall  thin 
sx)ire.  These  two  features  are  reproduced  in  endless 
variations  and  coml^inations  in  modern  religions  monn- 
mental  architecture  in  which,  also,  the  influence  of 
Enrox)ean  models  is  now  occasionally  to  a certain  extent 
visible.  One  or  more  monuments  thus  constructed  are 
to  be  found  in  the  enclosure  of  OA’-ery  monastery  and 
l^eing  by  far  the  most  durable  buildings  Avhich  the 
Siamese  haA’-e  at  any  time  erected,  the  more  ancient 
specimens  remain  to  mark  the  sites  of  A’anished  cities 
in  all  x>arts  of  the  country.  The  Phracliedi,  or  rather 
its  XJi’ototyx^e  the  Indian  Stu}3a,  is  said  to  haA-e  had  its 
origin  in  the  mound  AAKich  the  Buddha  directed  should 
be  raised  oaw  his  body  after  death,  but  it  is  x>i’obable 
that  the  instructions  \Axre  giA^en  by  the  Teacher  in 
consonance  Avith  a much  more  ancient  custom  and  that 
the  Siamese  shrines  AAfliich  enclose  some  real  or  fancied 


456 


SIAM 


relic  of  tlie  Teacher  or  contain  a part  of  the  ashes  of 
departed  Kings  are  in  fact  an  expression  of  that  same 
earliest  human  instinct  which  caused  the  erection  of 
rough  cairns  over  the  bodies  of  deceased  chieftains  in 
prehistoric  Eurojje. 

The  great  majority  of  Siamese  houses  are  built  of 
timber  or  even  lighter  materials,  varying  from  a few 
bamboos  topx3ed  with  grass  thatch  to  elaborately  worked 
teak  timber  supporting  a tiled  roof.  The  form,  however, 
remains  much  the  same  throughout  and  consists  of 
an  oblong  building  supported  well  above  the  ground 
on  posts  and  having  a steep  gable-ended  roof,  the 
larger  houses  of  the  upper  class  consisting  of  mere 
repetition  of  this  unit  in  a series  of  buildings  j)laced 
close  together  to  form  a more  or  less  continuous  whole. 
Such  buildings  call  for  very  little  in  the  way  of  plan 
or  design  previous  to  construction.  Every  countryman 
knows  how  to  build  a house  of  the  usual  type  and  has 
only  to  be  told  how  many  posts  are  to  be  used,  that  is, 
the  size  of  the  house,  to  be  able  to  assist  in  the  erection 
of  the  dwellings  of  his  friends,  which  he  does  for 
nothing  more  than  the  hospitality  of  the  proprietor 
while  he  is  so  engaged.  For  more  elaborate  buildings 
a model  consisting  of  main  supporting  posts,  rafters 
and  rooftree  is  sometimes  made  in  order  to  supply  ideas 
before  construction.  Complicated  panelled  walls  of 
teak  or,  in  Southern  Siam,  of  ‘ Changal  ’ wood  Avliicli 
form  part  of  the  more  substantial  houses  are  the  work 
of  ex^^erts  and  are  usually  made  with  great  deliberation 
and  added  one  by  one  to  the  house,  sometimes  months 
or  even  years  after  the  dwelling  has  been  inhabited. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  perceive  in  the  form  of  the 
ubiquitous  modern  temple,  a relationship  with  the 
primitive  form  of  dwelling-house.  The  same  oblong 
sha])e  is  there,  with  the  gable-ended  roof  and  the 
supporting  columns  and  the  temples  though  now 


WAT  WITH  MANY  MEMORIAL  PHRACHEDI  COVERING  ASHES.  Photo : Autonig, 


1 


TEMPLE  OF  THE  SACRED  FOOTPRINT,  PHRABAT.  Photo:  Antonio. 


ARCHITECTUllE 


457 


invariably  executed  in  masonry  in  the  plains,  can  still 
be  seen  in  what  must  have  been  the  earlier  form  of 
timber  and  thatch  in  the  faraway  mountainous  districts 
where  the  people  retain  many  of  the  characteristics  of 
their  Lao  ancestors.  The  temples,  however,  differ  in 
form  from  the  ordinary  dwellings  in  having  porches  or 
false  roofs  projecting  one  below  the  other  beneath  the 
gables  and  usually  highly  ornamented.  In  former 
times  the  centre  of  the  temple,  or  the  Holy  of  Holies, 
stood  in  a considerably  raised  position  and  was 
approached  l^y  flights  of  steps  ascending  under  a series 
of  projecting  porches.  Xow,  however,  the  steps  have 
in  most  examples  all  but  disappeared,  but  two  or  three 
of  the  porches  remain  and  constitute  the  chief  outside 
beauty  of  most  of  the  buildings.  The  porches  and  the 
side  roofs  of  the  peristyle  surrounding  the  temple, 
which  are  often  but  not  always  present,  also  represent 
the  multiple  roof  which  ancient  laws  xDermitted  for  the 
use  of  shrines.  The  same  s^’stem  of  flights  of  steps 
and  platforms  under  ascending  roofs  was  formerly 
employed  in  the  construction  of  palaces  or  ratlier  of 
the  audience  chambers  of  kings  and  porches  similar 
to  those  of  the  temples  are  still  to  be  seen  in  the 
architecture  of  the  old-fashioned  ro3val  buildings.  One 
of  the  most  beautiful  specimens  now  extant  is  the 
audience  hall  on  the  eastern  wall  of  the  Grand  Palace 
at  Bangkok,  a series  of  most  graceful  gables  ascending 
from  north  and  south  to  a central  roof  surmounted  by 
a slender  spire  beneath  which  in  byegone  days  the  king 
sometimes  sat  in  state  with  his  courtiers  arranged  in 
order  of  precedence  on  the  steps  on  either  side  of  him, 
and  spoke  with  his  lieges  prostrated  below  and  outside 
tlie  walls. 

About  the  middle  of  the  19th  century  there  was  intro- 
duced into  Siam  an  excessivel}’  ^^g’ly  i^arrack-like  st^de 
of  architecture  Avhich  materialised  in  brick  and  mortar 


458 


SIAM 


found  mucli  favour  with  the  u^^per  classes,  and  specimens 
of  this  dex^raved  taste  are  of  frequent  occurrence  both 
in  Bangkok  and  elsewhere.  The  Maha  Chakkri  Palace 
where  the  king  now  holds  his  Court,  was  constructed 
much  in  this  style,  but  was  saved  in  apxDcarance  by  the 
substitution  of  a beautiful  roof  of  ornamental  spires  and 
gables  of  x)ure  Siamese  architecture  for  the  monstrosity 
which  had  been  designed  by  the  European  builders. 
A similar  style  was  also  largely  ado]3ted  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  various  Government  Offices  which  at 
about  this  time  or  rather  later  came  into  existence  and 
the  Ministries  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Finance,  Interior  and 
War,  and  later  on  of  Justice,  large  and  roomy  structures 
of  the  simx)lest  x>ossible  form  and  altogether  bare  of 
ornamention  either  without  or  within,  are  good  examples 
of  this  Towards  the  end  of  the  century, 

however,  the  effects  of  a more  intimate  acquaintance 
with  the  axDpearance  of  Euroj^ean  cities  and  architecture 
became  evident  in  the  construction  of  buildings  of  a 
more  elegant,  as  well  as  a more  ornate  style.  Princes 
who  had  travelled  abroad,  and  who  had  been  entertained 
at  the  Courts  of  Eurox)e  were  no  longer  content  on  their 
return  home  with  the  workhouse-like  buildings  which 
had  satisfied  their  fathers  and  grandfathers,  and  the 
pulJic  offices  and  j)i’ivate  houses  which  have  lately 
been  erected  show  a very  considerable  advance  in 
architectural  taste.  The  laying  out  of  the  Dusit  Park 
to  the  north  of  the  cit^q  in  the  centre  of  which  stands 
a new  Royal  Palace  surrounded  by  the  houses  of  x^rinces 
and  nobles,  has  afforded  ample  scope  for  the  exercise  of 
newly  acquired  ideas  in  this  direction,  and  has  added 
to  the  c*ax3ital  a comxDlete  fmihoitrg  of  an  asx^ect  altogether 
unknowai  to  the  Bangkok  people  of  ten  or  a dozen  years 


MUSIC 


459 


Music,  Dancing,  and  the  Drama 

The  Siamese  are  a very  musical  people  and  surpass  all 
the  other  eastern  races,  with  the  possible  exception  of 
the  Burmese,  in  the  elaborate  treatment  and  considera- 
tion which  they  devote  to  this  form  of  art.  Their  musical 
conception,  however,  differs  very  greatly  from  that  of 
Western  people,  and  to  the  unaccustomed  European 
ear  their  music  sounds  bizarre  and  often  unpleasant, 
while,  similarly,  the  Siamese  distinguishes  at  first  no 
beauty  in  the  music  of  Europe.  This,  however,  is  a 
natural  result  of  the  dissimilarity  between  the  systems, 
and  it  is  merely  a matter  of  time  and  use  for  the  musical 
expressions  of  the  one  people  to  become  intelligible  to 
the  other. 

The  Siamese  gamut  consists  of  seven  equal  intervals 
each  of  which  is  exactly  If  semitones,  which  division 
renders  the  chromatic  scale  im])ossible  and  prevents  the 
satisfactory  rendering  of  European  music  on  Siamese 
instruments,  though,  thanks  to  the  influence  of  American 
missionaries,  the  repertoire  of  every  Siamese  Orchestra 
contains  inspiring  AYestern  airs  such  as  ‘ YAnkee 
Doodle,’  and  ‘ Alarching  through  Georgia  ’ which  are 
performed  with  a zest  that  possibly  compensates  in  a 
measure  for  want  of  accuracy  in  tone.  The  general 
impression  of  Siamese  music  is  that  it  is  all  played  in 
a minor  key,  but  this  is  not  the  case  for  the  ordinary 
scale  has  no  relation  to  the  European  minor.  The  effect 
as  of  the  minor  is  produced  by  the  often  plaintive 
nature  of  the  music,  a quality  which  is  aptly  expressed 
by  the  long-drawn-out  syllables  ‘ Xoi,  Xoi  ’ used  by  the 
Siamese  when  singing  without  words.  Siamese  music 
is,  however,  by  no  means  all  in  plaintive  cadence.  The 
orchestral  music  is  often  of  a very  sprightly  nature,  and 
many  tunes  are  ahvays  played  in  a loud,  not  to  sa,y  noisy 
manner.  Harmony  is  not  understood  or  practised,  but 


460 


SIAM 


some  extent  of  simple  variation  is  obtained  by  the  use 
of  connter23oint.  Time  is  very  carefully  observed,  and 
is  always  either  2/4  or  4/4.  Orchestral  music  is  always 
played  in  unison. 

Siamese  music  differs  scarcely  at  all  from  Burmese, 
and  most  of  the  instruments  used  are  common  to  both 
races.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  in  which  country  the 
peculiar  form  of  the  art  was  first  developed,  for  while 
the  Siamese  imagine  that  the  majority  of  their  instru- 
ments came  to  them  from  Burma,  the  Burmese  say  that 
many  of  their  own  are  of  Siamese  origin.  It  appears 
certain,  however,  that  the  Burmese  have  borrowed  much 
of  their  music  from  Siam  and  the  peculiar  stately  airs 
played  before  the  Burmese  King  in  former  days,  and 
still  in  use  to  indicate  the  presence  of  royalty  on  the 
Burmese  operatic  stage,  are  known  as  the  Yodaya  that 
is  the  Ayuthia,  or  Siamese  style.  It  is  probable  that 
most  of  the  instruments  are  derived  from  ancient 
primitive  Indian  models,  and  that  they  have  gradually 
l^eeii  altered  and  amplified  both  in  Burma  and  Siam  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  increasing  elaboration  in  the 
art.  The  instruments  used  in  Kambodia  also  strongly 
resemble  those  of  Siam. 

The  taste  for  music  is  so  widely  diffused  that  almost 
every  man  is  more  or  less  proficient  in  playing  at  least 
one  instrument.  Women,  however,  do  not  usaally  play 
though  there  are  few  semi-professional  female  performers, 
more  especially  ])erformers  ujion  the  Siamese  viol.  Saw 
Thai.  Both  sexes  are  taught  to  sing  in  early  youth. 
Guilds  for  the  training  of  musicians  at  one  time  existed 
but  have  long  since  fallen  into  disuse  and  tlie  chief  agency 
by  which  playing  and  singing  are  now  kept  up  is  the 
theatre.  Troupes  of  strolling  players  are  to  be  met  with 
in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  many  of  the  nobles 
maintain  whole  companies  in  their  households.  All  the 
])lays  are  operatic,  and  therefore  the  actors  are  all 


MUSIC 


461 


singers  and  are  accompanied  wherever  they  perform  Ijy 
an  orchestra  of  trained  musicians. 

As  there  is  no  form  of  mnsical  notation,  all  music 
is  learnt  h}^  ear  and  is  handed  down  by  tradition. 
Beginning  at  an  early  age,  both  singers  and  instru- 
mentalists soon  master  all  the  well  known  songs  and 
airs  and  frequentl}^  acquire  a repertoire  of  surprising 
extent.  A great  deal  of  time  is  spent  in  practising  and 
the  technical  skill  acquired  by  even  commonplace 
performers  is  very  considerable. 

Instruments  of  percussion,  stringed  instruments  and 
wind  instruments  are  all  used  in  the  production  of 
Siamese  music,  but  those  of  percussion  are  the  most 
numerous,  consisting  of  drums  and  gongs  of  many 
kinds  and  of  xylophones  or  harmonicas.  The  drums, 
except  the  largest,  are  not  usually  beaten  with  drum- 
sticks but  are  played  by  tapping  and  rubbing  with  the 
hands,  considerable  tonal  expression  and  rhythm  being- 
obtained  by  checking  and  Amrying  the  resonance  Avith 
the  fingers.  The  drums  most  commonly  in  use  are  the 
Talot-pot  and  the  Taphon,  slightly  barrelled  AA^ooden 
cylinders  about  tAAuce  tlie  length  of  the  diameter,  closed 
at  both  ends  by  coAA-skin  drumheads  and  either  placed 
on  a loAv  stand  in  front  of  the  performer  or  held  in 
his  lap  as  he  sits  on  the  ground,  A\dth  the  ends  con- 
Axnient  to  his  hands.  The  fingei’s  and  the  palms  of  the 
hands  are  used  separately  or  together  in  playing  and 
a great  deal  of  flourishi]ig  and  gesticulation  is  indulged 
in  by  the  performer  aa4io  often  AA^orks  himself  into  a 
state  of  passionate  excitement  OA'er  his  instrument. 
The  Klonrj  Yai,  another  drum,  is  larger  than  the  tAA'o 
former  and  is  shorter  in  proportion  to  its  diameter. 
8ome  of  these  are  A^ery  large,  are  played  or  rather 
thumped  Avith  a heaAq^  stick,  and  giA^e  out  a loud  but 
not  A’ery  resonant  sound.  The  Klonrj  Klieh  or ‘Malay 
Drum  ’ and  the  Song  Kah,  long  and  thin  cylinders 


462 


SIAM 


closed  with  cow-hide,  are  much  used  for  solemn 
processional  music.  They  are  supported  by  a cord 
passing  round  the  neck  of  the  player  and  are  struck 
with  a short  curved  drumstick  held  in  one  hand  while 
the  fingers  of  the  other  are  used  to  regulate  the  volume 
of  sound.  The  Tlion  which  is  a hollow  cone  with  a 
drumhead  at  the  larger  end  only,  varies  much  in  shape 
and  size,  being  sometimes  shaped  like  a Benedictine 
bottle  and  not  very  much  larger,  but  sometimes  like 
a gigantic  sherry  glass  hollowed  right  through  the 
stem.  The  latter  are  occasionally  quite  six  feet  long 
and  give  forth  a splendid  deep  note  of  great  resonance. 
Tlion  are  played  by  striking  with  the  hand. 

There  is  also  a . drum  resembling  an  overgrown 
tambourine  and  called  Buinaiia,  which  is  much  used 
for  indoor  music,  being  held  in  one  hand  and  beaten 
with  the  other.  It  is  an  instrument  introduced  from 
the  Malay  country  whither  it  probably  found  its  way 
from  Arabia  or  Egypt. 

The  ordinary  gong  or  Mong  has  a place  in  every 
orchestra,  being  usually  represented  by  two  or  three 
instruments  of  harmonising  tones,  struck  in  a simple 
ascending  chime  as  an  accompaniment  to  the  air. 
These  are  made  of  an  alloy  resembling  bronze  and 
usually  containing  a certain  amount  of  silver,  and  have 
a rim  some  three  inches  deep  and  a big  boss  in  the 
centre.  The  best  Mong  come  from  Burma.  A very 
peculiar  instrument  is  the  Klong,  a circular  wooden 
frame  often  curiously  carved  and  inlaid,  upon  which 
a series  of  small  brass  gongs  are  strung  horizontally. 
The  frame,  which  is  from  a foot  to  eighteen  inches 
high,  encloses  a space  of  some  three  feet  diameter  in 
which  the  performer  sits,  thus  having  his  notes 
arranged  all  round  him.  The  Klong  Yai  has  sixteen 
gongs,  each  producing  a different  note,  arranged  in 
a regular  scale.  The  Klong  Lek  has  twenty-one  gongs. 


MUSIC 


463 


smaller  and  consequently  of  liigiier  register  tliaii  the 
Klong  Yai.  This  last  is  the  principal  instrument  of 
the  orchestra,  in  accordance  with  which  the  other 
instruments  are  tuned  and  from  which  the  singers  in 
theatrical  performances  take  their  note.  The  Klong 
player,  who  acts  as  conductor  of  the  orchestra,  must 
of  necessity  comhine  physical  activity  and  powers  of 
endurance  with  his  high  musical  gifts,  for  the  playing 
of  the  instrument  demands  frequent  and  rapid  turning 
and  twisting  of  the  body  to  reach  all  the  notes  and 
provides  a form  of  violent  exercise  which  none  hut  the 
robust  could  endure  for  long. 

The  Ranat  or  Xylophone,  is  one  of  the  most  pleasing 
of  Siamese  instruments.  It  consists  of  a crescent  shaped, 
boat-like  body,  or  sometimes  simply  an  oblong  box, 
supported  on  a narrow  pedestal,  with  twenty  flat  bars 
of  hard  bamboo  or  wood,  laid  side  by  side  across  it 
and  suspended  on  two  parallel  cords  attached  to  either 
end  of  the  body.  The  bars  are  struck  with,  wooden 
hammers  and  have  a pure  and  liquid  tone  niiich 
strengthened  by  the  resonance  imparted  by  the  body 
of  the  instrument.  The  bars  are  carefully  tuned  by 
measurement  before  the  instrument  is  put  together 
and  the  intervals  betAveen  the  notes  are  usually  A^ery 
accurate.  There  are  three  kinds  of  Ranat : the  Ranat 
Ell,  Ranat  Tliuin  and  Ranat  Lek  AAdiich  differ  from  each 
other  only  in  register.  Much  care  is  devoted  to  the 
shaping  and  ornamentation  of  the  body  AA'hich  is  highly 
polished  and  often  richly  inlaid  Avith  ivory  or  motlier- 
of-pearl.  Cymbals  called  Chap  or  Ching  according  to 
the  size,  are  used  in  orchestral  playing  for  marking 
time,  as  are  clap]>ers  made  of  sjdit  bamboo.  These 
latter  instruments  AAdiich  call  for  the  exercise  of  no 
particular  skill,  are  usually  played  by  ancient  females, 
probably  superannuated  dancers  and  singers  to  AAdiom 
nothing  remains  of  their  former  qualifications  but  an 


464 


SIAM 


ear  for  rliytlim,  and  who  coyly  hide  their  time-ravaged 
charms  somewhere  at  the  hack  of  the  orchestra. 

The  principal  vdnd  instruments  are  the  and 
Pi  Chaiva  or  ‘ Javanese  Pi,’  clarion  instruments  used 
only  in  orchestral  playing  and  without  which  no  band 
is  complete.  The  Pi  consists  of  an  ebony  (or  other 
hard-wood)  torpedo-shaped  body,  hollowed  out  and 
perforated  in  six  places  with  finger  holes.  At  one  end 
of  the  body  is  a reed  mouth-piece  made  from  strips  of 
palmleaf  bound  together  and  inserted  in  a metal  tube, 
and  at  the  other  end  is  a wider  tube,  also  of  metal, 
whence  the  sound  issues.  The  Pi  Chaiva  is  of  similar 
construction  except  that  it  has  seven  finger-holes  and 
a thumb-hole,  while  the  tube  from  which  the  sound 
issues  is  broad  and  trumpet-shaped  and  is  loosely 
attached  to  the  body  of  the  instrument  by  means  of 
a cord.  The  notes  of  the  Pi  and  Pi  Gliawa  are 
loud  and  strident,  somewhat  resembling  those  of  the 
Scotch  bag-pipes.  The  Pi  Chaiva  is  common  to  Burma 
and  Java  as  well  as  to  Siam  and  is  probably  of  Indian 
origin.  The  Siamese  flute  or  Klui  is  made  of  thick 
reed  or  thin  bamboo  and  is  blown  from  the  end  in  the 
same  manner  as  a flageolet.  It  has  the  same  arrange- 
ment of  holes  as  the  Pi  Chaiva  clarion  and  is  usually 
of  a soft  mellow  tone.  A kind  of  flute  in  use  amongst 
the  hill-tribes  of  Southern  Siam  is  played  through  a 
hole  in  the  side  but  the  wind  is  blown  from  the  nose 
of  the  player  and  not  from  his  lij)s.  It  is  a ]Drimitive 
instrument  of  no  power  and  small  compass  and  with 
its  accompaniment  of  hollow  bamboos  beaten  against 
a tree  trunk  and  the  almost  inaudible  twanging  of 
a bamboo  Jew’s  harp,  constitutes  almost  the  only  music 
of  the  Semang  tribesmen. 

The  Ken  or  reed-organ,  has  been  mentioned  in 
Part  II.  The  instrument  is  common  to  many  of  the 
northern  tribes  but  reaches  its  highest  development 


SIAMESE  OKCHESTKA.  Photo  : Antonio. 

Takht\  Fiddles,  TUoii^  Drums,  with  Flute, 


SONGS 


465 


among  the  Lao,  who  have  made  it  one  of  the  sweetest 
toned  and  most  complete  wind  instruments  of  the  Far 
East.  The  usual  compass  is  14  reeds  each  of  which 
contains  a small  metal  tongue,  hj  the  vibrations  of 
which  the  notes  are  produced.  The  breath  of  the 
performer  is  blown  into  a small  body  made  of  the 
hard  fruit  known  as  Luk  Lamut,  or  of  hard  wood, 
through  which  the  reeds  are  passed  and  into  which 
they  are  fixed  with  bees-wax.  The  wind  passes  into 
the  reeds  but  does  not  act  upon  the  metal  tongue  until 
the  finger-holes,  which  are  pierced  in  the  reeds  quite 
close  to  the  wooden  body,  are  stopped.  When  a hole 
is  stopped  the  wind  causes  the  tongue  to  vibrate  and 
the  mote  is  produced  either  by  blowing  or  sucking. 
The  depth  of  the  tone  varies  with  the  length  of  the 
reed  from  which  it  issues.  The  reeds  are  neatly  bound 
together  with  thin  strips  of  cane.  Chords  can  he 
produced  on  the  ken  and  one  of  tlie  deep  notes  is 
usually  employed  after  the  manner  of  the  drone  of 
the  bagpipes.  A very  complete  account  of  this 
exceptional  instrument  has  been  given  by  Warington 
Smyth  in  his  book.  Five  Years  in  Siam.  With  its  low 
sweet  tones  the  ken  is  eminently  adapted  to  the  plaintive 
and  fugitive  airs  so  characteristic  of  the  music  of  Siam. 
It  is  one  of  the  few  instruments  which  appeal  im- 
mediately to  the  ears  of  eastern  and  western  people  alike 
and  its  gentle  tones  which  charm  the  village  maidens 
of  Siam  to  tears  have  bc^en  heard  vdth  scarcely  less 
moAung  effect  in  London  draAving  rooms. 

The  stringed  instruments  of  the  Siamese  are  few  in 
number  and  primitiAm  in  qualit,v.  The  most  important 
of  them  is  the  Takhe  (Crocodile),  so  called  from  a 
resemblance  of  the  instrument  to  that  animal.  In  its 
older  form  the  Takhe  Avas  really  shaped  in  likeness  to 
a crocodile  but  in  modern  instruments  tlie  form  has 
been  modified  into  a mere  oblong  box  sometimes  orna- 


466 


SIAM 


mented  with  a very  impressionist  crocodile’s  head  at 
one  end.  The  instrument  which  is  about  a yard  long 
has  three  strings  passing  over  a low  bridge  and  eleven 
frets  and  is  tuned  in  fifths  by  means  of  pegs  inserted 
just  behind  the  head.  The  bridge  stands  rather  behind 
the  middle  of  the  body  which  acts  as  a resonance 
chamber.  The  player  sits  on  the  ground  with  the 
instrument  before  him  and  depresses  the  strings  upon 
the  frets  with  the  fingers  of  one  hand  while  plucking 
them  with  an  ivory  plectrum  held  in  the  other.  The 
motion  of  the  plectrum  is  very  rapid  and  the  sound 
produced  is  something  between  that  of  a guitar  and 
a mandoline  but  the  notes  are  huzzy  and  indistinct. 
This  instrument  forms  part  of  most  orchestras  and  is  also 
used  for  solo  playing  and  for  accompanying  the  voice. 

The  Saio  Thai,  or  Siamese  viol,  has  a roughly  circular 
or  heart-shaped  body  of  about  six  inches  in  diameter, 
made  of  half  a coconut  shell  covered  with  skin,  a pointed 
foot  some  five  inches  long,  and  a cylindrical  neck  of 
about  18  indies.  It  lias  three  strings  passing  over  a 
small  bridge  planted  in  the  middle  of  the  body  and 
tuned  by  pegs  inserted  at  the  end  of  the  neck.  It  is 
played  with  a horse-hair  bow  and  is  held  in  front  of  the 
musician  after  the  manner  of  the  violoncello.  The 
instrument  though  often  beautifully  made  with  ivory 
neck,  foot  and  pegs,  is  very  imperfect  as  to  sound. 
The  strings  are  tuned  in  fifths  and  are  j^ressed  against 
the  cylindrical  neck  by  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand  to 
form  the  different  notes,  which  are  not  very  well  defined. 
The  instrument  is  used  only  to  accomjDany  singing. 

The  Saiv  Sam  Sai  a three  stringed,  and  the  Saw  Duang 
and  Saio  U,  two  stringed  fiddles,  instruments  having 
a small  body  and  long  neck,  are  probably  of  Chinese 
origin  but  are  now  included  in  all  Siamese  bands. 
Tneir  tone  is  high  and  strident  and  is  not  x^leasing  to 
the  European  ear. 


MUSIC 


467 


Occasions  for  the  enjoyment  of  music  are  very 
nnmerons.  In  addition  to  the  orchestras  of  theatrical 
companies  which  perambulate  the  country  and  are 
engaged  for  private  parties  or  are  hired  to  perform  near 
the  market-place  of  the  larger  villages,  bands  of  pro- 
fessional musicians  attend  at  the  observance  of  every 
domestic  or  religions  ceremony,  while  amateur  bands 
and  soloists  continnally  perform  for  their  own  delecta- 
tion or  for  that  of  their  friends.  With  the  fall  of  night, 
more  especially  wdien  the  moon  is  near  the  full,  the 
throbbing  of  drums  and  the  skirl  of  clarions  pervade 
the  air  of  every  town  and  village,  continuing  frequently 
until  dawn.  The  principal  combinations  of  instruments 
to  form  bands  are  the  Bimhat  for  open-air  pla^dng 
in  which  drums  and  gongs  predominate,  and  the 
Maliorl  or  string  band  in  which  TalBie  and  various 
fiddles  are  the  chief  element.  A certain  number  of 
instruments  is  prescribed  for  a full  band  but  is  by  no 
means  always  adhered  to.  On  the  occasion  of  a royal 
cremation  and  at  other  religious  ceremonies  connected 
with  royalty  a A-ery  Aveird  and  irnpressiA^e  music  is 
produced  by  a number  of  small  drums  and  one  or  tAA'o 
clarions,  Avhile  tAA'o  or  more  Ken  in  combination  with 
stringed  instruments  make  a very  effective  liand  foi’ 
indoor  musical  entertainments. 

The  Siamese  learn  to  play  European  instruments 
AAMth  ease  and  in  Bangkok  there  are  several  military 
bands  AAdiich  render  European  music  with  more  or  less 
efficiency.  Of  late  years  Siamese  airs  liaA^e  been  arranged 
for  European  instruments  and  many  Siamese  military 
marches  of  sprightly  and  pleasing  effect  liau-e  resulted 
from  these  efforts.  Long  trumpets  of  a shrill  and  piercing 
tone  are  used  on  state  occasions  to  herald  the  approach 
of  the  King,  and  the  fanfare  bloAAUi  Avith  a number  of 
these  in  unison,  is  striking  and  A^ery  much  in  keeping 
Avith  the  oriental  surroundings  amid  AAdiich  it  is  heard. 


468 


SIAM 


Being  so  musically  inclined  the  Siamese  naturally 
cultivate  the  art  of  singing.  The  result,  owing  to  the 
numerous  conventions  which  have  to  he  observed,  is 
veiy  different  from  the  European  conception  of  song  and 
is  a good  deal  more  difficult  of  appreciation  by  the 
foreigner  than  is  the  sound  of  even  the  most  peculiar 
of  their  musical  instruments.  The  number  of  pro- 
fessional singers,  which  of  course  includes  all  actors,  is 
very  large  while  every  child  is  taught,  or  learns  of  its 
own  accord,  the  peculiar  plaintive  pitch  and  nasal  tones 
by  which  the  natural  voice  must  be  disguised  as  a first 
step  towards  the  acquirement  of  the  art.  The  children 
also  receive  initiation  into  other  matters  besides  sound 
production,  such  as  the  correct  attitudes  and  deportment 
of  a singer,  the  peculiar  pronunciation  of  some  words 
when  sung  and  the  addition  of  conventional  sounds 
before  and  after  words  coming  in  certain  places,  all  in 
accordance  with  hard  and  fast  rules  governing  the  art. 
The}^  learn  these  things  the  more  readily  because  of  the 
extraordinary  dramatic  instinct  which  seems  to  be  an 
almost  hereditary  trait  in  the  national  character.  At 
the  age  of  about  four  years  the  Siamese  girl  child  is 
frequently  seized  with  the  desire  to  become  a prima 
donna  and  thereupon  proceeds  to  practise  both  singing 
and  dancing  with  the  utmost  seriousness  and,  though 
]ier  thoughts  and  wishes  are  usually  directed  into  other 
channels  as  she  grows  up,  the  effects  of  such  precocious 
yearnings  are  never  altogether  lost. 

The  stock  repertoire  of  the  professional  singer  consists 
of  verses  celebrating  the  exploits  and  the  miraculous 
powers  of  po])u]ar  heroes  of  the  past  and  of  love  songs 
and  ballads,  but  there  exists  also  a great  number  of 
simple  little  songs  and  choruses,  lullabies,  boat  songs, 
invocations  and  others,  with  whicli  the  people  beguile 
their  leisure  or  infuse  spirit  into  their  concerted  labours. 
The  amorous  feelings  invariably  find  expression  in  song 


SONGS 


469 


and  indeed  lovemaking  is  frequently  carried  on  by  the 
singing  of  short  couplets  in  antiplion  in  which  the  swain 
boasts  of  his  power  or  wealth,  praises  the  beauties  of 
his  lady  loA^e,  and  pictures  the  delights  of  love,  to  which 
the  girl  rei^lies  with  modest  words  of  self-depreciation, 
with  fears  of  man’s  inconstancy  or  with  warnings  of  the 
trials  of  marriage.  These  antiphonal  songs  are  usually 
learnt  from  books  consisting  of  long  dialogues,  which 
form  a large  X3art  of  Siamese  light  literature.  A 
favourite  form  of  entertainment,  more  especiall}"  in  the 
north  country,  consists  in  the  singing  of  extracts  from 
such  works  b}^  groups  of  youths  and  maidens  seated 
ojDposite  to  each  other  and  accompanied  by  a ken  or 
other  soft-sounding  instrument.  The  repartee  which  is 
rich  in  double  entendre  causes  much  merriment  amongst 
the  onlookers  more  especially  Avhen,  dej>arting  from  the 
letter,  the  parties  improvise  couplets  on  topical  or 
personal  matters.  Singing  is  taught  in  the  secular 
schools  of  Bangkok  and  the  National  Anthem  and  other 
patriotic  songs  are  occasionally  performed  at  public 
functions  by  thousands  of  school  children  singing  in 
unison. 

The  drama  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  most 
cherished  institutions  of  Siam,  but  though  the  people 
are  passionately  addicted  to  x^lay-going  there  existed 
until  lately  no  truly  pid^lic  theatre  in  the  whole  country. 
Professional  players  of  whom  the  number  is  very  great, 
are  either  strollers  who  perform  in  private  Louses,  in 
temporary  sheds  or  in  market  places  whenever  hired 
to  do  so,  or  are  x^ersons  x>ermanently  retained  in  the 
households  of  the  nobility  where  they  play  for  the 
amusement  of  their  master  and  his  friends.  From  time 
to  time  efforts  hai^e  been  made  by  the  nobles  to  turn 
their  x^idvate  troux:ies  to  x^ecuniary  advantage  by  ad- 
mitting the  x^nhlic  on  x^ayment  to  their  rex:»resentations, 
something  after  the  fashion  x'>i’e^’ailing  nmongst  the 


47G 


SIAM 


English  nobility  of  the  time  of  Henry  A^II,  who  licensed 
their  private  players  to  perform  in  public  ; but  ovdng 
partly  to  bad  management  and  partly  to  the  fact  that 
tlie  public  has  endless  opportunities  for  seeing  plays 
for  nothing,  these  ventures  have  always  hitherto  failed. 
In  the  beginning  of  1909,  one  such  enterprise  on  a more 
than  usually  ambitious  scale  was  inaugerated  with  the 
opening  of  a small  theatre  called  the  ‘ Predalai  Hall,’ 
where  twice  a ^veek  the  pla^dng-women  belonging  to  a 
Princely  household  x^erforni  jjieces  adax>ted  from  the 
English  or  French,  and  salted  to  suit  Siamese  tastes, 
with  a convincing  realism  which  leaves  radically 
nothing  to  the  imagination,  and  which  could  the}"  but 
see  them,  would  x^^’oGably  satisfy  even  the  most 
violent  British  advocates  for  the  freedom  of  the  stage. 
The  legitimate  drama,  which  is  called  Lahhon,  is  of 
very  ancient,  probably  Indian  origin,  and  is  so  strongly 
imbued  Avith  com^ention  and  tradition  as  to  be  almost 
incomx)rehensible  to  the  spectator  AAdio  has  receiA^ed  no 
education  in  the  matter.  It  has  considerable  affinit}^ 
Avith  the  Burmese  drama,  and  like  it  AA^as  formerly 
played  in  the  open-air,  Avhich  accoimts  for  the  fact  that 
it  is  usually  on  moonlit  nights  that  rexDresentations  are 
giA"en.  The  stage  is  merely  an  oblong  sjAace  on  three 
sides  of  A\diich  the  aiu,lience  sits  AAdiile  the  fourth  is 
reserved  for  the  orchestra  and  as  a sort  of  green-room 
and  dressing-room  AAdiere  the  x^layers  dress  and  make 
uj)  and  sit  to  await  their  cues.  In  the  houses  of  the 
Avell-to-do  AA"ho  have  their  private  stage,  this  fourth  side 
is  screened  ofr  leaving  tAvo  entrances  right  and  left,  but 
it  often  remains  quite  open  so  that  the  XAerformers  can 
be  seen  l)y  the  xuiblic  Avhile  going  tlirough  the  interest- 
ing  oxAeration  of  changing  their  clothes.  No  scenery 
AvhateA^er  is  used,  and  the  only  x^iece  of  stage  furniture 
is  a dais,  or  raised  seat,  x^laced  at  the  end  of  the  stage 
just  in  front  of  the  orchestra  and  dressing-room,  and 


THE  DRAMA 


471 


between  the  two  entrances,  which  serves  as  a throne,  as 
a bed,  as  the  interior  of  a cottage  or  what  not,  according 
as  the  action  of  the  play  demands.  The  dresses  are  very 
gorgeous,  bnt  are  strictly  conventional  and  quite  nnlike 
anything  to  be  seen  in  modern  Siam  except  in  old 
pictures  representing  the  classical  costume  of  gods  and 
of  royalty.  The  repertoire  consists  almost  entirely  of 
stories  from  Brahman  mythology  or  of  fanciful  episodes 
in  the  lives  of  kings  of  the  remote  past,  and  thns  the 
heroes  are  always  either  gods  or  kings,  and  the  heroines 
nsnally  princesses.  The  impersonators  of  all  the  serious 
parts  are  women  bnt  comic  relief  is  provided  by  two  or 
three  men  who,  nsnally  dressed  as  peasants,  that  is  in 
next  to  nothing,  and  without  any  make  np,  appear  as 
country  bumpkins,  or  as  slaves  or  servants  and  enliven 
the  proceedings  with  interpolated  dialogue  only  remotely 
connected  with  the  plot  and  with  buffoonery  which  is 
often  very  clever  and  usually  verging  on  the  indecent. 

The  make  up  of  the  women  consists  of  powder 
plastered  on  the  face  until  it  resembles  a smooth  white 
mask  and  of  strongly  marked  black  eyebrows  and  red 
lips.  This  covering  entirely  precludes  all  facial 
expression  of  the  emotions  ; hence  jo}^  sorrow,  pleasure, 
anger,  and  fear  are  all  expressed  l:)y  conventional  signs 
The  dialogue,  except  that  of  the  clowns,  is  conducted  at 
a high  and  monotonous  pitch  of  tlie  voice  and  the 
singing,  which  forms  a great  part  of  the  entertainment, 
is  always  slow,  loud,  and  of  strong  nasal  intonation. 
Incidental  yas  seiil  dances  indicative  of  love,  triumph, 
defiance,  and  other  emotions  are  of  frequent  occurrence 
as  are  concerted  morceaux  cle  hallet  implying  the  array 
of  armies,  the  flight  of  angels,  or  tlie  jieregrinations  of 
errant  princesses  with  their  attendant  maids-of-honour. 
Dancing  is  in  fact  almost  the  j)rincipal  feature  of  the 
entertainment  and  an  immense  amount  of  time  is  passed 
in  training  the  body  to  the  difficult  postures  and 


472 


SIAM 


undulations  which,  the  art  demands.  Skipping,  tripping, 
or  pirouetting  have  no  jilace  in  the  Siamese  dance  which 
consists  of  wreathing  the  arms  with  the  fingers  turned 
back  to  the  uttermost,  swaying  and  writhing  the  body 
and  advancing  or  retiring  with  gliding  motion,  the  toes 
turned  out  widely,  the  legs  bent  and  the  heels  always  in 
contact  with  the  ground.  Strange  to  say,  such  dancing 
when  executed  by  a company  of  well  trained  supple- 
bodied girls  is  frequently  of  very  charming  effect. 

The  national  dancing  which  is  very  similar  to  that  of 
the  Burmese,  has,  apart  from  the  drama  itself  an 
immense  hold  upon  the  peojDle.  Children  of  both 
sexes,  but  more  especially  the  females  are  instructed  in 
the  art,  and  though  -their  limbs  may  not  acquire  the 
extraordinary  suppleness  and  double  jointedness  which 
enables  professionals  to  bend  their  elbows  the  wrong- 
way,  and  to  turn  their  fingers  back  over  the  hand  to 
touch  the  wrist,  yet  some  proficiency  is  usually  attained 
and  the  pose  becomes  familiar  to  such  an  extent  that 
upon  the  sudden  experience  of  joy  or  triumph  in  later 
life,  the  body  is  almost  involuntarily  thrown  into  the 
attitude  of  the  dance  as  the  most  adequate  way  of 
expressing  the  feelings.  Lasciviousness  of  gesture 
Avhich  is  a common  feature  of  Indian  dancing,  and 
Avhich  to  a certain  extent  permeates  the  Burmese  art,  is 
markedly  absent  from  the  Siamese  Lakhon  dancing, 
though  among  the  Lao  it  is  at  times  not  altogether 
tabooed.  The  Lakhon  is  supposed  to  derive  its  name 
from  the  city  of  Lakhon  or  Nakhon  Sri  Thammarat, 
corrupted  by  the  Malays  into  Ligor,  and  the  supposition 
is  possibly  correct  seeing  that  the  city  of  Lakhon  is  one 
of  the  most  ancient  in  tlie  country,  and  Avas  very  early 
imbued  Avith  the  spirit  of  Brahmanism,  the  influence  of 
wliicli  is  plainly  evident  in  the  drama  of  Siam. 

Another  form  of  Siamese  play-acting  is  the  Yi  Kay 
in  which  until  quite  recently  no  AA^omen  took  part,  all 


SIAMKSI<:  “CORPS  1)|<:  liAIvLKT.”  rholo : Aiilonio. 


1 

%■ 


I 


-.1 


I 

1 


J 


THE  DRAJMA 


473 


the  female  characters  being  impersonated  by  men.  The 
general  effect  produced  is  like  that  of  the  Lahhon,  but 
thongh  the  costumes  and  the  incidental  dances  and 
music  are  similar,  the  repertoire  of  the  Yi  Kay  includes 
many  burlesques  and  farces  in  addition  to  the 
mythological  and  romantic  plays.  The  players  make 
np  for  what  they  lack  of  feminine  grace  by  a much 
higher  standard  of  acting,  as  understood  in  the  West, 
than  pertains  to  the  Laklion,  but  their  performances  are 
marred  by  frequent  coarseness  of  language  and  gesture 
thongh  it  cannot  be  said  that  these  latter  characteristics 
detract  from  the  enjoyment  of  the  audiences,  who  greet 
every  broad  witticism  with  shouts  of  laughter.  The 
Yl  Kay  is  said  to  be  of  Malaj^  origin,  and  it  is  highly 
probable  that  the  idea  of  plays  in  which  the  actors  are 
all  men,  came  to  Siam  from  the  neighbouring 
i\Iohammedan  countries,  but  its  introduction  must  be  of 
very  ancient  date  for  it  has  long  since  acquired  all  the 
attributes  of  a Siamese  institution,  and  except  perhaps 
for  the  absence  of  women  ])erformers,  betrays  small 
sign  of  a foreign  derivation,  while  even  in  the  matter  of 
the  sex  of  the  performers  the  Yl  Kay  under  the 
influence  of  modern  taste  is  now  departing  from 
tradition. 

Shadow  plays,  called  Kang  Tailing,  that  is,  Nang 
Phatalung,  or  ‘ The  Leather  of  Phatalung’  from  which 
Ijlace  the  Siamese  appear  to  have  received  the  institution, 
constitute  a third  form  of  the  drama,  a form  which  is 
extremely  popular  in  the  Malay  provinces  and  to  a 
rather  less  extent  i]i  Bangkok  and  other  parts  of 
Central  Siam.  A shadow  play  is  given  in  a small 
temporary  hut  erected  for  the  purpose,  one  entire  side 
of  which  consists  of  a white  sheet.  The  audience  sits 
on  the  ground  outside  and  watches  the  movement  of 
the  shadows  cast  upon  the  sheet  by  figures  mani]4u- 
lated  in  front  of  a light  within  the  hut.  Two  operators 


474 


SIAM 


sit  on  tlie  floor  one  on  each  side  of  the  light,  and  have 
the  dramatis  'personce,  cnt  out  of  stiff  leather,  arranged 
on  stands  beside  them.  When  a character  has  to  enter 
upon  the  scene,  the  figure  is  taken  from  the  stand  and 
is  held  before  the  light  by  a stick  attached  to  it  below 
the  feet,  or  if  the  scene  is  a long  one,  is  stuck  upright 
upon  the  soft  trunk  of  a banana  tree  laid  along  the 
floor  just  behind  the  sheet.  The  principal  characters 
have  practicable  lower  jaws  and  arms  which,  during 
the  endless  dialogue  which  forms  the  greater  part  of  the 
entertainment,  and  which  is  spoken  by  the  operators,  are 
worked  violently  up  and  down  thus  providing  the  chief 
movement  and  action  of  the  play.  The  performances, 
which  are  accompanied  by  a band  composed  of  C3"mbals 
and  gongs,  are  nearly  always  stories  from  Brahman 
mythology  and  though  they  might  seem  the  acme  of 
tediousness,  afford  evident  pleasure  to  the  large  audiences 
which  flock  to  see  them  and  which  remain  seated  under 
the  starlight  in  perfect  content  the  whole  night  through, 
until  the  coming  of  dawn  puts  an  end  to  the  pla}o 
The  stiff  leather  figures  are  made  with  great  care  and, 
though  no  more  than  their  shadow  appears  to  the  public, 
have  the  details  of  costume,  jewellery  etc.  skilfully 
painted  upon  them.  A good  deal  of  superstition  centres 
round  them  and  the  manipulators  never  use  a figure 
representing  an  evil  spirit  without  previously  fortifying 
themselves  with  charms  against  the  harm  which  might 
be  incurred  b}^  handling  it.  The  shadow  pla}^  is  some- 
times used  in  Southern  Siam  to  exorcise  evil  spirits 
which  have  brought  disease  into  a house  or  village.  A 
])lay  is  selected  in  which  a particularly  powerful 
malevolent  spirit  takes  the  leading  part.  The  spirits  of 
the  sickness  are  supposed  to  be  attracted  to  watch  the 
movements  of  one  whom  they  recognise  as  their  superior 
and  the  scene  towards  the  end  of  the  play  (when,  the 
shadow  curtain  being  drawn  aside,  the  leather  puppet, 


THE  DRAMA 


475 


violently  agitated  by  tlie  operator  who  appears  as  one 
possessed,  is  supposed  to  entice  the  spirits  into  a 
specially  prepared  trap  amid  the  shouts  of  the  excited 
audience  and  the  firing  of  guns,)  forms  one  of  the 
strangest  exhibitions  of  superstition  and  credulit,y  which 
can  be  imagined. 

Amid  the  changes  which  have  come  to  Siam  and  the 
Siamese  within  the  last  two  decades  or  so,  the  drama 
has  not  remained  unaltered.  Indeed  an  entire!}^  new 
phase  has  recently  been  introduced  by  the  Predalai 
Hall  and  His  Majesty’s  company  of  players,  for  both  of 
which  institutions  numerous  plays  have  lately  been 
written,  demanding  a stage  and  accessories  after 
European  models  for  their  representation.  From  these 
plays  the  conventional  costumes,  language,  attitudes 
and  sentiment  of  the  classical  Lakhon  have  altogether 
disappeared  and  have  been  replaced  by  the  CAmryday 
costumes  of  the  country,  scener,y  representing  the 
modern  surroundings  amidst  Avhich  the  people  li\m,  the 
popular  Amrnacular  Avith  its  colloquialisms  and  its  most 
ui^-to-date  slang,  in  fact  by  a rendering,  more  or  less 
natural,  of  ordinary  incidents  of  modern  life.  The 
plays  are  nearl}-  all  comedies  in  AAdiich  the  loAm  motif 
largely  predominates,  none  of  them  appear  to  be  original 
but  all  are  free  adaptations  from  English  and  French 
works  and,  judging  by  the  enthusiasm  Avith  AAdiich  the}" 
are  receiAmd  by  large  audiences,  they  seem  destined-soon 
to  usurp  the  place  of  the  legitimate  school,  at  any  rate 
AAntli  the  jieople  of  the  higher  classes.  The  future 
deAmlopment  of  this  departure,  AAdiich  clearly  indicates 
the  changing  sentiment  and  ideals  of  the  nation,  Avill  lie 
in  a high  degree  both  interesting  and  instructive. 


476 


SIAM 


PART  VI 
RELIGION 

Practically  all  the  i^eople  of  Siam  are  Buddhists.  True, 
many  other  religions  are  represented  in  the  country  but 
the  number  of  adherents  of  these  does  not  amount, 
taking  them  altogether,  to  more  than  a small  part  of  the 
total  population.  Of  those  primitive  people  who  may 
be  classed  as  spirit  worshippers,  there  are  perhaps  a 
quarter  of  a million  ; the  j>eople  of  the  Malay  provinces 
are  mostly  Mohammedans  ; Chinese  Confucianists  are 
to  be  found  in  colonies  here  and  there  ; the  dwellings 
of  a few  Christians  cluster  round  the  habitations  and 
churches  of  the  Missionaries,  and  in  one  small  district 
Brahmanism  still  obtains  in  its  ancient  forms.  None  of 
these  religions,  however,  are  gaining  ground,  their 
influence  is  practically  unfelt  and  their  very  continuance 
in  the  land  is  due  solely  to  the  extraordinary  spirit  of 
tolerance  which  Buddhism  inculcates  in  its  followers. 

During  the  2500  years  which  have  passed  since  the 
Buddha  lived  on  earth,  his  teaching  has  had  an  enormous 
influence  over  the  greater  part  of  Asia,  of  the  population 
of  which  continent  nearly  two-thirds,  or  over  500  millions 
of  men,  now  follow  in  one  form  or  another  the  Teacher 
and  the  Law.  It  is  not  to  be  expected,  however,  that 
so  great  a section  of  the  human  family  can  be  found 
undivided  on  the  vexed  subject  of  religious  faith  and 
Buddhism  is  split  up  into  branches  and  sects  without 
nund:)er,  the  members  of  which  regard  each  other  with 
a rancour  second  only  to  that  which  seems  to  animate 
some  Christian  sectarians.  The  beginnings  of  Buddhism 
were  in  the  country  immediately  surrounding  the  city 
of  Benares  in  India,  which,  as  the  scene  of  the  birth, 
teachings  and  death  of  the  Buddha,  constitutes  the 


RELIGION 


477 


Buddhist  H0I3"  Land.  The  religion  spread  rapidlj'  all 
OA^er  India,  up  into  Central  Asia,  through  Tibet,  into 
China,  Korea,  Japan,  Mongolia,  and  Manchuria,  and  doAAUi 
to  Cejdon  and  tlience  to  Sumatra,  JaAm,  the  Malay 
Peninsula  and  Further  India.  Later,  Buddhism  dis- 
api^eared  from  India,  being  put  doAAUi  hj  the  Brahmans, 
and  from  Sumatra,  JaA^a  and  the  Malaj^  Peninsula  AAdiere 
it  AA^as  replaced  b}^  Mohammedanism.  But,  though  the 
trunk  has  disapx>eared,  the  tAA^o  main  branches,  called 
Northern  and  Soutliern  Buddhism,  continue  to  flourisli 
exceeding!}^,  the  Southern  branch,  AAdiich  represents  the 
school  most  nearly  approximating  to  the  actiial  teachings 
of  the  Buddha,  liaAong  its  present  home  in  Ceylon, 
Burma  and  Siam.  Partisans  on  each  side  hotly  maintain 
the  suj)erior  purity  of  the  national  religion  of  those 
three  countries  as  opposed  to  each  other.  The  differences 
are,  lioAA^eA^er,  minute  and  of  absolute^  no  importance 
AAdien  compared  AAuth  those  AAdiich  divide  tlie  Northern 
from  the  Southern  Buddhists  and  others  Aidiich  liaA^e 
split  the  Northern  branch  into  schisms  so  broad  as  to 
constitute  to  all  ax^pearances  and  to  most  intents  totalh^ 
distinct  religions. 

EA’ery  Buddhist  country  jiossesses  its  Aversions  of  the 
life  of  the  Buddha,  and  also  its  mass  of  legend  connected 
thereAvith,  someAYhat  at  Amriance  Avitli  each  other  in 
detail  but  not  much  so  as  to  the  main  x^oints.  The 
life,  Pathomma  Somphotiyan,  is  x^i’obabl}"  the  best 
knoAAui  Siamese  Aversion  oAAung  to  its  liaAdng  lieen 
translated  by  Alabaster.  It  is  incomplete,  but  so  far  as 
it  goes  is  A^erA^  close  to  the  Burmese  and  Cingalese 
versions  and  consequently  may  be  taken  as  a fair 
rendering  of  that  generally  accepted  hy  the  Southern 
Buddhists. 

According  to  this  the  Buddha,  called  in  Siam,  Phra 
Phutthi  Chao,  in  Burma,  Gotama  “ Boudha  ” AA'asborn  in 
the  A^ear  623  b.c.,  of  MaAva,  the  Avife  of  Suddhodana,  king 


478 


SIAM 


of  Kaj)ilawat,  identified  as  the  modem  Nagar  Kiis,  not 
far  north  of  the  city  of  Benares.  The  legend  has  it 
that  the  conceiDtion  of  Queen  Maya  was  immaculate, 
that  signs  and  portents  were  numerous  on  the  occasion 
of  the  birth,  and  that  a marvellous  future  was  predicted 
for  the  child  either  as  a ‘ Chakkrawartin,’  (a  world 
conquering  warrior  and  universal  monarch),  or  as 
a Buddha.  The  name  of  the  child  prince  was  Sithat 
(Siddhartha),  and  he  was  brought  up  as  a member  of  the 
warrior  caste  Ivshatriya,  and  educated  to  succeed  his 
father  as  ruler.  He  was  married  early,  and  led 
a normal  existence  until  he  had  reached  the  age  of 
twenty-nine  3^ears  when  he  suddenly  gave  up  the 
pleasures  and  comforts  of  his  life,  renounced  his  royal 
position  and  his  wife  and  child,  and  departing  into  the 
wilderness  in  search  of  religion,  gave  himself  up  to  an 
asceticism  so  severe,  and  to  meditations  so  intense  that 
in  six  years  from  the  date  of  this  Great  Renunciation 
he  had  acquired  a reputation  for  saintliness  far  surpass- 
ing that  of  all  the  ascetics  who  were  at  that  time  very 
numerous  in  the  land.  Then,  however,  when  nearly 
dead  from  starvation,  he  realised  that  he  was  on  the 
wrong  path  and  that  not  by  asceticism  alone  would  the 
truth  be  revealed.  He  therefore  broke  his  self-imposed 
rules,  and  thereby  lost  his  saintly  reputation.  His 
friends  and  followers  deserted  him,  and  he  was  left  to 
wander  alone  in  a state  of  uncertainty  as  to  whether, 
after  all  any  way  of  light  existed  and  whether  he  was 
not  as  near  wisdom  when  in  his  father’s  palace  as  in  his 
present  condition.  At  length,  seated,  weary  and  heart- 
13  roken  in  the  shade  of  a tree,  the  Ficus  Religiosa,  or 
Bo-tree,  ever  after  to  l3e  regarded  as  the  sacred  tree  of 
AVisdom,  lie  was  assailed  by  the  temptation  to  give  up 
the  struggle  and  go  home,  but  just  as  worldl}^  desire 
seemed  about  to  conquer,  there  burst  upon  his  intellect 
the  glorious  light  of  everlasting  truth,  the  whole  of  his 


RELIGION 


479 


Pliilosopliy  was  revealed  to  him  in  a flash,  all  worldly 
thoughts  and  temptations  fell  away  for  eA^er,  and  his 
mind  came  forth  that  of  a Buddha,  beyond  the  reach  of 
sorroAv  as  of  joy,  clear,  pellucid  and  omniscient.  There- 
upon he  left  his  seclusion,  and  for  forty-hA^e  years 
wandered  oA^er  the  earth  teaching  the  Law  with  AAdiich 
he  found  himself  inspired,  and  ultimately  died  at  the 
age  of  eighty. 

In  the  Life  it  is  istated  that  KapilaAA^at  AA^as  a great 
and  poAverful  kingdom,  that  the  Buddha  Ausited  the 
AA'hole  terrestrial  AA-orld,  and  parts  of  the  heavens  in  the 
course  of  his  AA^anderings,  and  that  had  he  not  become 
a Buddha  he  AAmild  in  just  ten  days  after  the  date  of 
the  Renunciation  liaA-e  become  a CliakkraAA^artin.  These 
are  examples  of  a natural  exaggeration  Avhich 
characterises  the  greater  part  of  the  Life.  IvapilaAA^at 
Avas  in  fact  the  inconspicuous  territory  of  a petty 
Raja.  The  Buddha  Avas  at  first  no  more  than  one  of 
a greater  number  of  ascetics  at  that  time  engaged,  by 
means  of  self-torture  and  self-repression,  in  attempting 
to  penetrate  the  mysteries  of  existence,  and  his  Avander- 
ings  AA^ere  confined  to  a small  part  of  Central  India. 
XeA’^ertheless  his  teaching  caught  the  popular  imagina- 
tion as  that  of  no  other  anchorite  had  done,  his  fame 
spread  in  all  directions,  he  became  a poAver  amongst  the 
surrounding  chieftains,  and  AAdien  he  died,  the  Order 
AA'hich  he  had  founded  and  Avhich  had  already  become 
a numerous  body  AA^as  taken  under  the  protection  of  the 
most  poAverful  of  the  local  Rajas,  King  Ajatasatru  of 
Magadha. 

Less  than  a year  after  the  death  of  the  Buddha,  the 
first  Council  of  his  Holy  Order  Avas  held  at  Raj agriha 
under  the  auspices  of  Ajatasatru,  AAdien  500  disciples 
AAdio  had  attained  the  dignity  and  poAA'ers  of  full  monk- 
hood, chanted  the  AAdiole  of  the  teachings  of  the  Buddha 
as  after AAurds  Avritten  doAAm  in  the  Trai  Fitok,  ( = Trai 


480 


SIAM 


Pitaka)  or  ‘ Three  Baskets,’  the  Scriptures  of  the  Buddhist. 
The  first  ‘ Basket  ’ or  Rules  of  the  Order,  Phra  winai 
( = Vinaya),  was  led  by  the  disciple  Upali,  the  second, 
Sermons  for  the  Laity,  Phra  Sut  ( = Suttra),  by  the 
disciple  Ananda,  and  the  third.  Philosophy,  Phra 
Baramat  ( = Abhidarma),  by  the  aged  Kasyapa,  one  of  the 
original  members  of  the  Order.  The  Siamese  generally 
suppose  that  the  Ti^ai  Pitok  existed  then,  either  in 
\yriting  or  in  the  memory  of  the  monks  in  their  present 
form,  but  such  was  not  the  case  since  many  parts  bear 
evident  marks  of  composition  at  a much  later  time. 
Certainly  they  had  not  been  written  down  at  that  early 
date,  for  various  records  prove  conclusively  that  they 
were  first  reduced  to  writing  in  Ceylon  by  order  of  the 
King  Watta  Gamini  about  330  years  after  the  death  of 
the  Buddha. 

One  hundred  years  after  the  Raj  agriha  Council,  the 
first  great  schism  occurred  when,  as  the  result  of 
a further  Council,  the  Northern  and  Southern  sects 
arose.  In  the  3rd  century  b.c.,  the  King  Asoka, 
monarch  of  Maghada,  which  had  now  become  a powerful 
kingdom,  became  a devout  follower  of  the  Buddha,  with 
a view  to  purifying  the  religion  he  convened  at  Patna, 
a great  Council  of  1000  monks  who  deliberated  during 
nine  months,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  Rules  of  the 
Order  and  the  Doctrines  of  the  Faith  had  been  again 
rehearsed  and  settled.  Asoka  caused  Edicts  to  be  cut 
in  stone  and  set  up  in  various  parts  of  his  kingdom, 
which  Edicts  discovered  and  deciphered  in  recent  times 
reveal  his  interpretation  of  the  Law  as  an  infinitely 
purer  and  more  simple  creed  than  centuries  of  meta- 
physical i^onderings  and  the  introduction  of  com- 
plicated ceremonies  and  ritual  afterwards  made  it. 
A great  part  of  the  Trai  Pitok,  including  the  wdiole  of 
the  third  ‘Basket,’  finds  no  place  in  the  Edicts,  wdiich 
display  a spirit  of  tolerance  and  a simple  righteousness^ 


RELIGION 


481 


inculcating  obedience  to  parents,  kindness  to  children 
and  the  lower  animals,  indulgence  to  inferiors,  reverence 
towards  Brahmans  and  the  Members  of  the  Order, 
suppression  of  cruelty,  anger,  passion,  and  extravagance, 
the  cultivation  of  humility,  tolerance,  and  charity.  The 
Edicts  contain  nothing  of  the  hypothetical  deities  and 
metaphysical  beings  with  which  modern  Buddhism  is 
saturated,  and  veiy  little  of  Nirvana,  and  the  Chain  of 
Existence,  but  are  a straight-forward  rendering  of 
a singularly  beautiful  and  simple  religion,  urging 
mankind  to  the  performance  of  good  deeds,  and 
promising  an  easity  understood  reward  in  the  blissful 
semi-human  existence  of  the  Lower  Heavens  or  Saivan. 

The  Buddha  having  by  long  asceticism  and  medita- 
tion become  convinced  of  the  Four  Great  Truths, 
namely,  that  sorrow  ever  attends  existence  ; that  the 
cause  of  sorrow  is  desire  ; that  with  the  extinction  of 
desire  must  come  cessation  of  sorrow ; and  that  by 
holiness  alone  can  desire  be  extinguished  ; set  himself 
to  teach  the  renouncement  of  all  worldly  desire  and 
bodily  pleasure  and  the  attainment  of  a mental  state 
which  should  cause  mankind  no  longer  to  hanker  after 
existence  but  to  aspire  to  a perfect  state  of  rest  or 
nothingness  ; that  so  long  as  the  smallest  desire  con- 
tinued, the  burden  of  existence  and  its  attendant 
sorrow  must  continue  in  a ceaseless  round  of  death 
and  rebirth  either  in  this  world,  or  in  some  other  ; that 
by  accumulation  of  the  merit  of  good  works  or  of  the 
demerit  of  evil  living,  the  amount  of  sorrow  might  be 
decreased  or  increased  by  temporary  abode  in  one  oi* 
other  of  numerous  states  of  comparative  bliss  or  of 
pain  and  unhapiDiness,  accurately  graded  to  suit  every 
condition,  but  that  only  by  walking  rigidly  in  the 
eightfold  path  of  holiness  could  the  chain  be  broken 
and  annihilation  attained,  and  then  only,  unless  in 
very  exceptional  cases,  by  a final  life  in  the  terrestrial 

2 H 


482 


SIAM 


world  in  a superlative  state  of  previously  accumulated 
merit,  wliicli  should  synchronise  with  the  earthly  life 
of  a future  Buddha  who  would  act  as  guide  to  Nirvana 
for  such  as  should  be  in  a fit  condition  to  reach  it. 
Such  a law,  aiming  at  nothing  less  than  the  extermina- 
tion of  all  existence,  must  of  course  be  practically 
beyond  the  power  of  mankind  to  follow,  and  it  is 
probable  that,  but  for  the  humanising  influence  of  the 
interpretations  of  Asoka,  the  philosophy  of  the  Buddha 
would  in  time  have  died  out  as  so  many  others  have 
done.  Asoka,  in  fact,  erected  upon  the  foundation  of 
an  abstruse  philosophy,  the  skeleton,  as  it  were,  of 
a practicable  popular  religion,  a simple  teaching  of 
right  and  wrong  with  an  inducement  to  righteous 
living.  The  subsequent  accumulation  of  mysticism 
and  miracJes,  ritual  and  ceremony,  the  work  of  later 
exponents  whose  love  of  the  marvellous  has  appealed 
successfully  to  human  credulity  and  superstition,  finds 
its  parallel  in  at  least  one  other  religion  the  tenets  of 
which  are  now  far  removed  from  the  simple  teaching 
of  its  Founder.  . 

The  Buddha  did  not  teach  the  existence  of  any 
God  and  made  no  attempt  to  solve  the  mystery  of 
the  Beginning  of  Things,  while  of  the  end,  or 
Nirvana,  he  had  nothing  very  definite  to  say.  His 
supernatural  intellect  could  grasp  the  idea  of  a 
universe  without  any  beginning  and  of  an  end  in 
sheer  nothingness,  but  mankind  with  its  narrow  limita- 
tions must  have  a God,  an  ultimate  Court  of  Appeal, 
to  whom  supplication  can  be  made,  must  have  its 
Beginning  and  its  End,  its  Heaven  to  reward  the 
virtuous  and  its  Hell  for  the  punishment  of  the  wicked, 
and  hence,  long  after  his  death  and  that  of  the  simple- 
minded  Asoka,  a partial  deification  of  the  Buddha 
himself  and  the  annexation  of  Brahmanical  super- 
stitions and  Brahman  divinities  provided  Southern 


RELIGION 


483 


Buddliism,  as  miderstood  to-day  by  the  masses  of  the 
people  who  follow  it,  with  a Deity,  a Celestial  Hierarch}^ 
and  several  Heavens  and  Hells  of  the  completest  and 
most  realistic. description. 

Siamese  Cosmogony. — The  Siamese  conception  of  the 
Universe  is  drawn  from  the  pages  of  the  Trai  Philm 
or  ‘ Three  Places,’  the  Earth,  the  Heavens  and  the 
Hells,  a gigantic  work  of  sixty  volumes,  compiUd  by 
Royal  command  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century 
and  setting  forth,  amongst  other  matters,  the  Buddhist 
cosmogony  as  contained  in  former  classic  writings  and 
in  the  legendary  lore  then  available.  Xo  attemj^t  is 
made  here  to  explain  a Beginning  of  Things,  but  a 
start  is  made  with  the  annonncement  that  the  whole  of 
space  is  and  has  ever  been  occupied  by  an  infinite 
number  of  cosmic  groups,  all  alike  and  each  one 
containing  a world  of  men  with  heavens  and  hells  and 
also  other  worlds  inhabited  by  more  or  less  manlike 
creatures.  These  groups  are  continually,  though  at 
immense  intervals  of  time,  being  destroyed  in  rotation 
by  fire,  water  or  wind,  and  are  as  continually  being 
formed  again  by  reason  of  the  gradual  reaj)j)earance 
of  imperfections  amongst  the  all-but-perfect  formless 
Brahma  angels  and  for  whom,  by  reason  of  the  growth 
of  desire,  tangible  dAvelling  jilaces,  food  and  other 
necessaries  of  existence  have  to  be  provided.  Each 
group,  which  is  called  a Chakrawan,  surrounds  a 
central  mountain,  the  Phra  Men  or  Hern,  and  consists 
of  eight  belts  of  ocean  divided  from  each  other  by  seven 
circular  mountain  ranges  with  an  eighth  ring  outside 
of  all  named  the  Crystal  AVall  of  the  AVorld.  In  the 
outermost  belt  of  ocean  are  situated  four  grou^Ds  of 
islands,  the  southern  group  constituting  the  world  of 
man  and  the  other  groups  forming  worlds  peopled  by 
square-faced,  semicircular-faced  and  round-faced  beings, 
more  or  less  human.  On  the  mountain  belts  and  on 


484 


SIAM 


he  central  Phra  Men  are  situated  six  lower  heavens 
where  those  who  have  practised  virtue  and  charity  as 
men  may  hope  to  he  horn  as  angels  and  to  lead  an 
existence  attended  hy  every  sensual  pleasure  for  a 
period  which  may  extend  to  hundreds  of  millions  of 
years.  Above  the  lower  heavens  are  nine  stages,  in- 
finitely suh- divided,  the  heavens  of  the  Brahma 
angels,  heings  without  sex  or  intestines,  who  have  shed 
all  earthly  senses  except  those  of  sight  and  hearing 
and  who  exist  in  a stage  of  extreme  beatitude  for 
twenty  six  thousand  ‘kap,’  a ‘kap  ’ being  some  millions 
of  millions  of  years,  before  the  merit  accumulated  by 
terrestrial  asceticism  and  contemplation  is  exhausted. 
Above  the  sexless  angels  again  are  the  four  highest 
heavens  where  formless  angels  (Arupaijliom),  invisible 
essences  of  six  kinds  of  happiness,  exist  for  periods 
almost  infinite,  in  the  expectation  of  Nirvana  after  their 
next  earthl}^  career. 

Beneath  the  earth  at  a distance  of  a hundred  miles 
is  situated  the  uppermost  of  the  5120  Hells  in  which 
every  conceivable  form  of  suffering  is  dealt  out  to 
those  whose  demerit,  when  in  the  world,  has  exceeded 
their  merit.  The  Trai  Pimm  enumerates  at  great 
length  and  with  gruesome  detail,  the  punishments 
which  have  been  devised  to  fit  every  crime  and  which 
continue  until  the  demerit  has  been  wiped  out  and  the 
spirit  at  last  achieves  rebirth.  The  makers  of  demerit  do 
not  all  go  to  hell,  however,  for  many  are  reborn  at  once 
as  animals  without  intelligence  or  as  Preta,  a kind  of 
poor  wandering  ghost  twelve  miles  high,  so  thin  as  to  be 
invisible,  and  alTlicted  with  never-to-be  satisfied  hunger 
and  thirst.  Large  numbers  of  peoi)le  are  reborn  as  Phi, 
beings  attached  to  Earth  and  strongly  interested  in  the 
affairs  of  man  ; dangerous  beings,  moreover,  and  mis- 
chievous, and  requiring  constant  attention  from  man 
to  keep  them  in  even  partial  quiescence. 


RELIGION 


485 


The  whole  of  this  great  system  of  Earth  and  Water, 
Heavens  and  Hells,  rests  on  a vast  sea  in  which  huge 
fish  disport  themselves,  causing  earthquakes  by  their 
more  violent  movements,  and  this  sea  again  is  sup- 
ported in  space  by  a mighty  wind.  At  the  foot  of 
Mount  Men  dwell  the  gigantic  Khrut  (Garuda),  birds 
constantly  at  war  with  the  Naga  or  serpent  people, 
who  live  in  the  world  of  men  but  underground. 

The  mass  of  the  people  know  little  or  nothing  of 
the  Trai  Phum  but  glean  their  knowledge  of  the 
Universe  from  ancient  stories  of  Ilimaphan,  the  fairy- 
land which  occupies  a large  part  of  their  world  and  is, 
doubtless,  the  Hiniala^^as,  from  the  sermons  of  the 
monks  and  from  realistic  pictures  of  the  delights  of 
heaven  and  the  pains  of  hell  which  they  see  on  the 
walls  of  every  temple.  Among  the  educated  classes  it 
has  long  been  denied  that  the  Trai  Phum  contains  the 
teachings  of  the  Buddha  or  that  it  is  anything  more 
than  an  elaborate  fabrication  raised  by  generations  of 
meditative  friars  upon  a foundation  of  Brahman  legend. 
The  philosopher  whose  thoughts  were  introduced  to 
the  public  in  Alabaster’s  most  excellent  book.  The 
Wheel  of  the  Law,  as  the  views  of  a Modern  Buddhist 
on  his  own  and  other  people’s  religions,  points  out  that 
the  Buddha  carefully  avoided  the  subject  of  cosmograx)hy 
and  sup23oses  that  although,  being  omniscient,  no 
secrets  of  the  Universe  Avere  hidden  from  him,  he 
refrained  from  enlightening  the  AAnrld  on  the  subject 
because  he  did  not  Avish  to  disagree  Avith  the  Brahmans 
in  Avhose  Vedic  Avritings  most  of  the  theories  aftenvards 
incorporated  in  the  Trai  Phum  Avere  already  included. 

Introduction  of  Buddhism  and  Biudimanism  into 
Siam. — Buddhism  early  found  its  AAny  from  India  into 
China  and  thence  Northern  Buddhism  AAns  brought 
doAvn  into  Siam  by  Avandering  Lao-Tai  tribes  probably 
at  a date  prior  to  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  Era. 


486 


SIAM 


About  the  same  time  the  fruits  of  the  first  Buddhist 
mission  sent  to  the  shores  of  Further  India  by  Asoka 
about  250  b.c.,  were  becoming  visible  in  the  rapid 
spread  of  the  Southern  form  of  the  religion  through, 
the  Malay  Peninsula,  Burma  and  the  Southern  parts  of 
Siam  where  it  soon  drove  out  and  supplanted  the 
northern  cult.  Evidence  from  various  sources,  which 
has  been  carefully  collected  and  tabulated  by  Gerini, 
shows  clearly  that  Southern  Buddhism  was  firmly 
established  throughout  Indo-China  as  early  as  the 
5th  century  a.d.,  about  which  period  a further  great 
mission  from  Ceylon  gave  additional  impetus  to  the 
religion  and  fixed  it  finally  as  the  prevailing  faith  of 
that  quarter  of  the  world.  At  that  time  the  ancient 
Brahmanistic  Nature  and  Spirit  worship,  from  which 
Buddhism  was  itself  a schism,  was  already  established 
in  the  land  as  the  religion  of  the  ruling  clasa,  while  the 
great  majority  of  the  people  were  animists  pure  and 
simple,  and  worshipped  the  spirits  of  the  mountains, 
the  idvers  and  the  trees  as  well  as  a host  of  others. 

In  considering  the  subject  of  Religion  in  Hindustan 
and  Further  India  it  is  well  to  remember  that  the 
spirit  of  intolerance  of  other  creeds,  so  strongly  manifest 
in  Christianity  and  Islamisni  has  always  been  remark- 
able for  its  absence  there.  At  the  period  when  the 
Buddha  lived,  though  the  Brahmans  had  built  up  an 
enormously  strong  religion  in  India  of  which  they 
themselves  were  at  the  head,  any  man  was  apparently 
free  to  indulge  his  own  theories  concerning  spiritual 
matters  and  new  philosophies  were  continually  being 
evolved,  Avhich,  so  long  as  they  recognised  the  superior 
Avorldly  condition  of  the  Brahmans,  were  alloAA^ed  to 
flourish  unchecked  and  were  frequently  accepted  in 
the  accommodating  minds  of  the  people  together  with 
their  substanti\"e  beliefs.  The  Buddha  himself,  qvhile 
teaching  a Law  diametrically  opposed  to  Brahmanism 


RELIGION 


487 


was  careful  to  advise  an  attitude  of  respect  towards 
the  Brahmans,  and  it  was  only  when  the  strength 
and  arrogance  of  his  followers  had  caused  this  precept 
to  be  forgotten  that  the  Brahmans,  in  defence  of  their 
intricate  and  sacred  caste  system  and  of  their  own 
worldly  position  of  paramountcy,  inaugurated  the 
persecutions  which  banished  Buddhism  from  India 
and  left  the  way  clear  for  the  establishment  of 
Hinduism. 

The  present  day  inhabitants  of  the  mountainous 
region  of  Further  India,  modern  exponents  of  the 
elementary  spirit-worship  once  common  to  the  whole 
peninsula,  are  not  above  soliciting  the  prayers  of 
foreigners,  when  their  own  sacrifices  and  incantations 
prove  unavailing,  and  nearl}^  always  adopt  the  religion 
of  their  Buddhist  neighbours  when,  by  a turn  of  fortune, 
they  are  raised  from  their  native  condition  of  savageiy 
to  civilised  affluence.  It  is  not  difficult,  therefore,  to 
imagine  how  easily  the  early  inhabitants  of  Siam 
accepted  new  religions,  first  Brahmanism  and  then 
Buddhism  or  possil^ly  both  simultaneously,  when 
brought  to  them  by  civilised  and  superior  men  from 
foreign  lands,  or  how  as  they  prospered  and  themselves 
liecame  civilised,  they  found  it  easy  to  accommodate  the 
two  creeds  and  to  extract  from  each  what  most  appealed 
to  them,  grafting  the  result  upon  the  stock  of  their 
ancient  beliefs  and  superstitions.  It  was  thus  that 
a strange  composite  religion  grew  up  and  spread 
throughout  Kambodia,  Siam,  and  Burma,  in  which 
plain  witchcraft  with  its  attendant  phallic,  tree  and 
serpent  worship,  Brahmanism  or  glorified  spirit-worship 
with  its  elaborate  mythology  and  its  imposing  ceremonies, 
and  Buddhism  with  its  Four  Great  Truths  and  its 
admirable  precepts,  became  inextricably  mingled.  But 
by  slow  degrees  Buddhism  came  to  predominate  in  the 
mixture.  The  Monastic  Order  took  firm  root  in  the 


488 


SIAM 


country  and  as  the  centuries  passed,  the  cosmogony, 
more  or  less  in  consonance  with  Buddhist  theories, 
which  has  been  briefly  outlined  above,  was  shaped,  in 
which  all  sorts  of  dragons  and  dryads  found  places, 
while  the  gods  of  Brahmanism,  bereft  of  their  divinity, 
fell  into  the  position  of  mortal  or  semi-mortal  beings  in 
various  states  of  transmigration  and  occupying  stations 
in  the  different  Heavens  of  temporary  bliss  or  in  the 
undenvorlds  of  pain  and  woe.  In  the  ruined  temples 
and  time-worn  relics  with  which  the  whole  country  is 
strewn,  the  ancient  co-existence  of  Brahmanism  and 
Buddhism,  and  also  the  gradual  supplanting  of  the 
former  b}^  the  latter,  can  without  much  difficulty  be 
traced.  Upon  the  sites  of  the  oldest  cities,  Sukhothai, 
Sawankalok,  Pitsanulok,  Sri  Wijaiya  and  countless 
others,  bronze  statues  of  the  various  Brahman  gods  are 
continually  found  mingled  with  images  of  the  Buddha, 
one  of  the  finest  known  being  the  almost  life-size  figure 
of  Shiva  discovered  at  Sawankalok  in  1886  and  now  in 
the  Bangkok  museum.  In  the  less  ancient  ruins,  such  as 
A}mthia  and  Wieng  Chan,  such  relics  of  Brahmanism 
are  almost  entirely  absent  whilst  Buddhist  remains  are 
exceedingly  numerous.  Finally  in  the  modern  cities, 
with  the  exception  of  Nakhon  Sri  Thammarat  and  the 
neighbourhood  where  Brahmanism  still  holds  its  own 
as  a distinct  religion,  and  in  one  temple  in  Bangkok 
which  is  the  head  quarters  of  the  Court  Brahmans, 
representations  of  the  Brahman  gods  are  rarely  seen  or, 
if  present,  are  relegated  to  quite  subordinate  positions 
as  attendants  on,  or  adorers  of,  the  Buddha. 

Siamese  Buddhism 

In  the  life  of  the  modern  Siamese  man  the  joractice  and 
the  observances  of  religion  play  a very  important  part. 
In  the  vast  majority  of  cases  he  becomes  when  a boy 


SIAMESE  BUDDHISM 


489 


either  an  inmate  of,  or  a daily  attendant  at,  the  monastery 
of  his  village  where  he  receives  from  the  monks  an 
elementary  education  embracing  the  three  ‘ r’s  ’ and  the 
rudiments  of  the  Buddhist  Faith.  Later  on,  when  a 
young  man,  he  seeks  admission  into  the  Holy  Order,  an 
observance  incumbent  upon  the  whole  male  population, 
and  becomes  a monk  for  a period  of  three  months  or  as 
much  longer  as  he  may  desire.  When  he  returns  to 
lay  life  it  is  with  a knowledge  of  his  duty  as  a good 
man  to  honour  the  Buddha,  the  Law  and  the  Church, 
a duty  which  entails  periodical  visits  to  the  temple  to 
hear  sermons  and  to  recite  doxologies,  readings  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures  during  the  months  of  Wasah,  the  rainy 
season,  or  Lent,  the  daily  contribution  of  food  to  the 
begging  bowls  of  the  monks  and  the  presentation  of 
special  food,  clothing  and  other  objects  at  the  monasteries 
on  the  many  occasions  set  apart  for  this  purpose. 
Furthermore  he  has  had  impressed  upon  his  mind  and 
has  l^een  compelled  rigidly  to  obey,  for  a time  at  least, 
the  five  principal  Commandments,  obedience  to  which 
is  incumbent  on  any  good  man  whether  cleric  or  lay, 
namely,  not  to  destroy  life  ; not  to  obtain  the  property 
of  another  unjustly  ; not  to  indulge  the  passions  ; not 
to  tell  lies,  and  to  refrain  from  all  intoxicants  ; while 
he  has  been  made  acquainted  with  the  lesser  five  imposed 
upon  the  monkhood  and  though  advisable  for  the  laity, 
not  absolutely  necessary  for  their  salvation.  During 
the  years  of  strenuous  life  the  precepts  of  religion  are 
apt  to  be  forgotten  and  so  far  as  is  possible  the 
necessary  observances  are  left  to  the  women,  who  perform 
them  with  the  utmost  devotion  but,  when  old  age  comes 
upon  him,  he  usually  turns  to  the  consolations  of  his 
Faith,  becomes  punctilious  in  the  performance  of  his 
religious  duties  and  ends  his  days  in  the  practice 
of  holy  meditations  and  in  the  fervent  repetition, 
with  the  aid  of  a rosary  of  beads,  of  endless  formulas 


490 


SIAM 


which  take  the  place  of  prayer,  the  object  of  which 
is  to  divert  the  mind  from  mundane  things  and  to 
direct  it  to  the  calm  contemplation  of  approaching 
dissolution. 

It  is  not  easy  to  understand  exactly  what  is  the 
Siamese  conception  of  the  soul  or  rather  that  part  or 
essence  of  the  being  which  forms  the  link  of  identity 
between  one  state  of  existence  and  another.  The 
Buddhist  Philosophy  altogether  denies  the  existence  of 
the  soul  as  understood  or  imagined  by  Christians,  but 
maintains  that  upon  the  death  of  the  individual  every- 
thing that  constituted  the  ‘ self  ’ of  the  individual  is 
dispersed,  broken  up  and  annihilated,  and  that  nothing 
remains  except  the  merit  or  demerit  accumulated  during 
the  existence  of  the  individual,  to  the  making  of  which 
every  act  and  thought  of  the  life  which  has  passed  has 
contributed,  no  matter  how  trivial  or  grave  such  act 
and  thought  may  have  been.  It  is  supposed  that  this 
abstract  cpiality  of  merit  or  demerit,  called  Kam 
(Karma),  being  dissipated  at  death,  is  reprecipitated  to 
form  the  next  link  in  the  chain  of  existence,  the  nature 
and  condition  of  that  link  being  decided  by  the  kind 
and  degree  of  the  Kam.  This  abstruse  metaphysical 
doctrine,  the  ordinary  Siamese,  however,  does  not 
appear  able  to  grasp,  or  if  he  does  so,  his  mind 
recoiling  from  the  idea  of  such  complete  suppression  of 
identity,  rejects  it  in  favour  of  the  theory  of  a much 
more  material  essence  which  passed  from  being  to 
being  along  the  chain  of  existence,  retaining  some 
ever-so-slightly  connected  identity  throughout,  whether 
the  transmigration  be  from  man  to  man,  or  beast,  or 
angel,  or  devil,  or  to  one  of  the  (usually)  invisible 
beings,  PhT,  which  we  translate  ghosts.  This  theory 
gains  evidence  from  the  numerous  cases,  of  course  said 
to  be  authenticated,  which  come  to  light  from  time  to 
time  of  individuals  being  born  with  distinct  recollec- 


A DEDICATORY  ALTAR 


•1 


.'■.V' 


■ A- 


\' 


.~y 


^ 


m 


i 


SIAMESE  BUDDHISM 


491 


tions  of  former  existence,  remote  or  recent,  as  men,  as 
lower  animals  and  so  forth. 

The  Siamese  has  no  brain  for  metaphysics,  and  there 
are  probably  very  few  men  in  the  country,  other  than 
monks,  who  ever  bother  themselves  about  the  nature  of 
Kam.  Alabaster’s  ‘Modern  Buddhist’  sets  out  to 
explain  the  whole  matter  but  having  got  himself 
hopelessly  off  the  track,  and  confused  by  sheer 
inability  to  get  away  from  materialism,  breaks  off 
suddenly  with  the  wise  remark  that  ‘ To  dwell  on  the 
subject  Avould  be  tedious.’ 

The  average  Siamese  layman,  in  fact,  appears  to 
regard  his  future  existences  as  \^ery  much  continua- 
tions of  ‘ self.’  He  trusts  that  he  Avill  always  liaA^e 
enough  merit  to  aA^oid  the  more  painful  hells,  and  to 
escape  the  inclusion  in  his  career  of  the  life  of  a 
draught-ox  or  other  long-suffering  beast,  and  he  hopes 
for  rebirth  either  as  a man  in  better  Avorldl}^  condition 
tlian  the  present,  or  for  a foAv  million  years  of  rest  amid 
the  pleasures  of  one  of  the  LoAver  Heavens, 

The  Monkhood 

Almost  the  first  thing  taught  to  any  child  of  Siamese 
parents  is  the  recitation  of  the  formula,  ‘ I reA^ere  the 
Buddha,  the  LaAv  and  the  Order,’  the  fundamental 
profession  of  the  Buddhist  Faith.  The  third  of  these 
objects  of  reverence  is  the  Monkhood  of  AAdiich  every 
adult  male  indiAudual  of  the  AAdiole  population  has  at 
one  time  been,  or  actually  is  a meml^er.  The  monks 
are  those  avIio  have  bound  themseh-es  by  oath  to  escheAv 
the  A^anities  and  Avickedness  of  the  Avorld,  to  liA^e  apart 
from  their  felloAvs,  and  l)y  the  practice  of  many 
austerities,  the  cultivation  of  humility  and  lyy  deep  and 
prolonged  meditation,  to  accpiire  merit  and  so  adA^ance 
themseHes  on  the  steep  and  difficult  path  AAdiich  leads 


492 


SIAM 


through  countless  existences  to  Nirvana.  The  monks 
of  Christendom  and  of  Buddhism,  who  have  many 
points  in  common,  differ  in  this  that  whereas  the 
devotions  of  the  former  are  for  the  benefit  of  mankind, 
those  of  the  latter  are  inspired  by  the  desire  for 
individual  benefit.  The  difference,  however,  though 
apparently  great,  is  in  fact  not  so,  since  the  Christian 
by  his  sacrifices,  prayers,  and  good  works  on  behalf  of 
his  fellow-creatures,  hopes  to  assure,  incidentally,  his 
own  future  beatitude,  while  the  Buddhist  in  advancing 
himself  on  the  ladder  of  existence,  decreases  the  sum  of 
universal  sorrow,  and  in  the  pursuit  of  personal  merit, 
acts  as  teacher  and  guide  to  those  around  him  and 
affords  them  endless  op]3ortunities  of  accumulating  merit 
for  themselves  by  the  exercise  of  charity  and  reverence 
towards  him.  Tluis  by  different  methods,  and  for 
opposite  reasons  both  achieve  the  same  ends,  namely 
the  benefiting  of  their  felloAvmen  and  the  assurance  of 
their  own  happiness  in  a future  state  of  existence. 

In  the  beginning,  the  Buddhist  monk  was  a wander- 
ing mendicant  pure  and  simple,  avIio  having  given  up 
the  world  and  all  his  worldly  possessions,  clothed 
himself  in  cast-off  rags,  yellow  from  age  and  dirt,  and 
wandered  from  place  to  place  begging  his  food  and 
sleeping  under  such  shelter  as  trees  and  caves  afforded 
him.  On  the  approach  of  the  wet  season  the  pious 
inhabitants  of  the  locality  where  he  happened  to  be, 
would  build  him  a small  hut  on  the  confines  of  their 
village,  and  here  he  would  stay,  preaching  sermons  and 
expounding  the  Law  in  return  for  their  alms,  until  the 
end  of  the  rains  enabled  him  once  more  to  take  the 
road.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  the  monastery 
system  replaced  the  homeless  life  at  a very  early  date, 
for  the  people,  urged  by  their  piety  and  by  the 
necessity  for  making  merit,  replaced  the  temporary  huts 
by  permanent  structures  and  invited  the  monks  to 


.4 


PHKA  TODOXG  OR  MONKS  ON  I'lLGRIMAGE. 


GRACE  BEEORE  FOOD.”  PHRA  TODONG  RECEIVING  ALMe 
(The  umbrellas  are  used  as  tents.) 


I 


■r 


. yi';. 


> 


THE  MONKHOOD 


49S 


make  them  their  fixed  places  of  abode  to  which, 
however  far  they  might  wander  during  the  dry 
weather,  they  would  return  for  the  season  ordained  by 
the  Rule  as  their  period  of  rest.  Thus,  out  of  the  rude 
huts  of  ancient  days,  grew  the  great  and  frequently 
magnificent  monasteries  with  their  numerous  inmates 
and  complicated  rales  which  grace  every  Buddhist 
country,  and  of  which  Siam  has  her  thousands  like 
the  rest. 

The  Siamese  monks  though  comfortably  housed  and 
suiTounded  by  pious  supporters,  take  full  advantage  of 
the  travelling  rule,  and  large  numbers  of  them  wander 
all  over  the  country  and  visit  the  notable  shrines  and 
sacred  places  in  their  own  and  other  Buddhist  lands. 
Parties  of  such  pilgrims  who  are  known  as  Tlira  Todoiuj, 
are  to  be  met  with  at  any  time  and  place  during  the 
dry  season,  marching,  each  monk  accompanied  by 
a Yarn  or  attendant  boy  bearing  the  scanty  necessaries 
of  the  journey,  across  the  open  lands  and  through  the 
jungle  from  place  to  place,  or  camped  beneath  their 
little  tents  formed  of  white  cloth  thrown  over  a large 
Chinese  umbrella,  on  the  dry  cracked  rice  fields  where 
they  receive  the  alms  and  permit  the  reverence  of  the 
country  folk. 

The  hierarchy  of  the  Church,  at  the  head  of  which  is 
His  Majesty  the  King,  is  very  distinctly  defined  and 
has  existed,  subject  to  occasional  modifications  to  meet 
specific  requirements,  from  the  earliest  days  of  Buddhism 
in  the  country.  The  active  chief  of  the  Order  is  usually 
a SangkJiarach  or  Prince  of  the  Church,  selected  by  the 
King  from  among  the  four  Somdet  Phra  Chao  Baehkaua 
or  Chao  Kana  Yai,  Chief  Abbots  who,  themselves,  ai-e 
selected  from  the  Abbots  of  the  numerous  Royal  wats,, 
or  temples  founded  and  supported  by  Royalty.  The 
Chao  Kana  Yal  control  the  four  principal  divisions  into 
which  the  Order  is  divided,  one  having  charge  of 


494 


SIAM 


ecclesiastical  affairs  in  the  northern  half  of  the  kingdom, 
another  of  those  in  the  south,  a third  of  the  Kana 
Dliammayutika  or  the  brotherhood  devoted  to  the 
purification  of  the  faith  and  the  simplification  of  its 
observances,  while  the  fourth  is  the  head  of  the  hermit 
monks,  formerly  numerous  but  now  much  reduced  in 
numbers  and  importance,  who,  for  the  better  observance 
of  humility  and  asceticism,  live  not  in  monasteries  but 
altogether  apart  in  the  solitude  of  the  jungle.  Each 
Chao  Kana  Yai  has  an  assistant  or  deputy  and  under 
the  provisions  of  an  Ecclesiastical  Law  passed  in  the 
year  121  of  the  Ratanakosindr  Era  (1903  a.d.),  the 
whole  of  these  eight  dignitaries  constitute  an  Assembly 
to  which  all  general  questions  affecting  the  religion  are 
submitted  for  settlement  and  which  also  acts  as  a Final 
Court  of  Appeal  in  cases  coming  under  the  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction.  In  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the 
above  mentioned  Law,  a number  of  lesser  dignitaries 
are  appointed  having  jurisdiction  over  the  Monks  and 
the  Wats  in  areas  corresponding  to  the  civil  divisions 
of  the  country.  Thus  one  individual  with  the  title  of 
Chao  Kana  Monton  has  general  charge  in  each  Monton 
or  High  Commissioner’s  Division,  while  under  him  is 
a Chao  Kana  Muang  for  each  Muang  or  Province  in  the 
Monton,  who  in  turn  controls  the  Chao  Kana  Kioeng  or 
the  ecclesiastical  heads  of  the  districts  comprised  in  the 
Muang.  Lastly  there  is  the  Wat  or  Monastery,  with 
its  Principal  Monk  or  Abbot,  its  monks,  its  Kane  or 
novices,  and  its  Sisya  or  boys  living  in  the  Wats  either 
in  attendance  on  the  monks  or  for  the  purposes  of 
education.  The  number  of  monks  in  the  whole  country 
is  about  90,000,  of  Kane  40,000,  and  of  Sisya  75,000. 
These  are  distributed  in  upwards  of  10,000  Wats.  The 
Abbots  of  monasteries  and  the  dignitaries  of  higher 
degree  are  usually  selected  from  amongst  those  monks, 
known  as  Parien,  who  have  passed  through  the  nine 


THE  MONKHOOD 


495 


grades  of  proficiency  in  the  Bali  {i.e.  Pali)  language, 
the  Trai  Pidok  (or  Pitok)  the  Siamese  edition  of  the 
Trai  Pit  aka  and  the  Commentaries,  an  achievement 
which  entitles  them  to  the  use  of  the  prefix  Malta 
(great)  before  their  names. 

There  exists  also  an  Order  of  Nuns  of  which  the 
foster  mother  of  the  Buddha  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  member,  in  which  women  can  seek  a refuge  from 
the  world  and  follow  the  Rule  of  the  Order  so  far  as 
their  inferior  state  of  existence  allows.  The  members, 
called  Chi-Song,  are  few  in  number  however,  and 
consist  chiefly  of  ancient  dames  who  have  long  out- 
lived the  temptations  of  the  flesh  and  who  have  no 
relatives  to  support  them.  They  have  no  convents  and 
on  the  rare  occasions  when  they  are  met  with  are  usually 
found  located  in  little  huts  on  the  outskirts  of  a 
monastery. 

The  Church  in  Siam  as  at  present  constituted  enjoys 
a considerable  income  from  lands  which  have  been 
presented  as  endownnents  (Ti  Tovani  Song),  or  the 
receipts  from  which  are  devoted  by  the  owmei-s  to  the 
support  of  a particular  Wat  (Ti  Kalixina).  flflie  Govern- 
ment revenues  derived  from  certain  lands,  (also  called 
Ti  Kalpana),  are  permanently  devoted  by  order  of  the 
King  to  the  support  of  the  Church. 

Idle  ordination  of  a Buddhist  monk  is  an  impressive 
ceremony.  The  preliminaries  have  already  been  noted 
in  Part  II.  Upon  entering  the  Wat  accompanied  by 
relatives  and  friends,  the  candidate  finds  himself  before 
the  Abbot,  wdio  is  seated  in  front  of  the  great  image  of 
Buddha  wdth  his  attendant  monks  grouped  around  him 
and  all  wearing  the  inscrutable  and  grave  expression 
of  reposeful  meditation  wdiich  is  characteristic  of  the 
Order.  The  candidate  seats  himself  upon  the  floor 
opposite  the  Abbot  wdiile  the  congregation  arranges 
itself,  also  sitting  on  the  floor,  on  either  side  of  him 


496 


SIAM 


Presents  are  then  humbly  offered  by  his  relations  to  the 
monks,  and  a sponsor,  leading  him  to  the  feet  of  the 
Abbot  where  he  prostrates  himself  three  times,  presents 
him  as  a supplicant  for  admission  to  the  Order.  The 
Abbot  thereupon  solemnly  catechizes  the  candidate  as 
to  his  mental  and  bodily  condition.  The  candidate, 
having  made  satisfactory  replies  to  all  questions,  again 
prostrates  himself  with  hands  joined  in  the  attitude  of 
prayer  and  implores  to  be  taken  from  the  wicked  world 
and  received  into  the  fold  of  the  Church.  Thereupon 
the  name,  age  and  condition  of  the  candidate  are  entered 
in  a register,  the  robes  and  paraphernalia  of  a monk  are 
brought  forward  and  the  candidate  is  publicly  stripped 
of  the  gala  costume  in  which  he  has  presented  himself 
and  is  clothed  by  attendant  monks  in  the  holy  yellow 
garments.  The  begging  bowl  is  slung  over  his  shoulder, 
the  fan  is  placed  in  his  hand  and  thus  habited  he  kneels 
once  more  before  the  Abbot  and  the  sacred  image 
towering  behind,  and  repeats  so  that  all  may  hear  : — 

‘ I go  for  refuge  to  the  Buddha  ’ 

‘ I go  for  refuge  to  the  Law  ’ 

‘ I go  for  refuge  to  the  Order.’ 

Then,  following  the  Abbot,  he  takes  upon  himself  the 
ten  vows,  to  destroy  no  life  of  any  kind,  not  to  steal,  to 
abstain  from  impurity,  not  to  lie,  to  abstain  from  all 
intoxicants,  not  to  eat  at  forbidden  times,  to  abjure 
dancing,  music  and  all  similar  worldly  delights,  to  use 
no  scents  or  personal  ornaments,  to  touch  no  gold, 
silver  or  money  and  to  sleep  only  on  the  ground  or  on  a 
low  and  narrow  bed.  The  Abbot  then  announces  publicly 
that  the  candidate  is  received  into  the  Order  and  recites 
the  list  of  duties  which  he  must  perform  and  of  sins 
which  he  must  avoid.  Thereafter  the  parents,  relatives 
and  friends  of  the  newly  ordained  monk  prostrate 
themselves  in  turn  before  him,  at  the  same  time  offering 
him  such  small  presents  as  he  may  receive  without 


THE  MONKHOOD 


497 


sinning  and,  having  done  this,  leave  him  to  take  up  his 
abode  in  the  monastery  where  he  must  remain  thence- 
forth or  until  he  may  ask  to  he  relieved  of  his  vows  and 
to  return  to  the  world. 

European  writers  of  the  class  which,  ignoring  local 
customs  and  surroundings,  considers  the  chewing  of 
betel  or  the  smoking  of  a cigarette  as  incompatible 
with  a reverent  or  respectful  attitude  of  mind,  have 
described  the  ordination  ceremoii}^  as  marred  by  the 
levity  and  carelessness  of  the  attendant  congregation. 
In  truth,  however,  the  occasion  is  usually  marked  by 
decorous  behaviour  according  to  Siamese  standards 
and,  though  here  and  there  a girl  may  titter  or  a man 
greet  a friend  with  a smile  and  a remark,  the  con- 
templative faces  of  the  monks,  the  solemn  words  which 
are  spoken  and  the  tears  of  mingled  pain  and  joy  of 
a mother  who  sees  her  son  go  from  her  into  the 
remoteness  and  sanctit.y  of  the  Holy  Order  do  not  fail 
to  draAv  the  thoughts  aAvay  for  the  moment  from  the 
outside  Avorld  and  to  impress  the  mind  with  the  solemn 
meaning  of  the  ancient  rite. 

The  generic  term  for  a monk  in  Siamese  is  Phra, 
meaning  ‘ Excellent,’  ‘Holy,’  ‘The  Best,’  or  sometimes 
Phra  Song.  European  Avriters  allude  to  monks  usually 
as  ‘Bonze,’  the  Japanese  for  a monk,  or  more  commonl}' 
as  ‘ Talapoin,’  a AA^ord  AAdiich  AA^as  supposed  to  be  derived 
from  Talapat,  the  large  fan  AAdiich  monks  hold  before 
the  face  to  screen  them  from  Avorldly  distractions,  but 
this  Gerini  has  recently  shown  to  be  from  the  Mon 
‘ Tala-Khpoi  ’ or  ‘ Tala-Poi,’  meaning  ‘Our  Master,’ 
the  term  usualH  employed  by  the  Mens  in  addressing 
their  monks,  and  probably  hrst  imported  into  use 
among  Avriters  on  Siam  by  Portuguese  familiar  Avith 
iMartaban  and  other  Mon  centres. 

The  Monastery. — The  monasteries  in  AAdiich  the 
monks  pass  their  peaceful  and  secluded  lives  are  laid 


498 


SIAM 


out  more  or  less  in  accordance  with,  a general  plan 
within  an  oblong  space  enclosed  by  a brick  wall.  The 
short  sides  of  the  parallelogram  face  east  and  west 
and  the  main  entrance  is  in  the  middle  of  the  eastern 
face.  Usually  the  containing  wall  is  from  four  to  six 
feet  high,  rising  into  pointed  arches  at  the  entrances, 
but  sometimes  in  the  case  of  the  larger  Wat,  it  is  much 
higher  and  has  the  cells  of  the  monks  built  against  its 
inner  face,  or  forms  the  back  of  a penthouse  gallery 
running  round  the  interior  and  containing  rows  of 
images,  of  wall-paintings  depicting  scenes  from  the 
life  of  the  Buddha  or  from  the  ancient  tales  of  the 
Brahman  mythology.  Facing  the  main  entrance  stands 
the  Temple  or  Bot-  the  sacred  fane  wherein  ordinations 
and  other  special  services  are  held.  This  is  the  Holy 
of  Holies  and  upon  its  embellishments  the  utmost  of 
which  art  is  capable  is  brought  to  bear.  It  is  an 
oblong  building  always  carefully  oriented,  the  outside 
walls  are  of  whitewashed  brick-work,  there  are  wide 
porches  at  each  end  and  sometimes,  though  not  always, 
a peristyle  running  along  the  sides,  the  roof  of  which 
is  supported  on  square  brick  columns.  The  floor  of 
the  porches  and  peristyle  is  usuall}^  paved  with  tiles 
of  terracotta  or  marble.  The  Avails  are  pierced  with 
doorways  at  either  end  and  with  high  windows  along 
the  sides,  the  frames  of  which  are  often  elaborately 
carved  and  heavily  gilded,  or  covered  with  designs  in 
lacquer-Avork.  The  doors  and  window-shutters  are 
ornamented  in  a similar  manner.  Glass  AvindoAvs  are 
only  seen  in  a feAA^  of  the  more  ambitious  modern 
buildings.  Above  all  rises  the  steep  roof  Avhich  is  the 
chief  beauty  of  Siamese  ecclesiastical  architecture. 
The  ridge  runs  east  and  west  folloAving  the  central 
line  of  the  building  and  at  each  end  tapers  up  in  a 
graceful  curve  into  a fine  point  beloAv  which  a series 
of  gable-ends  projects  one  under  the  other,  extending 


THE  SIMPLEST  EOUM  OE  TEMPLE. 


INTERIOR  OF  WAT  CHINNARAJ,  RHITSAXULOK. 
(The  iiiia^^e  is  700  years  old.) 


THE  MONKHOOD 


499 


over  the  porches  below.  Each  gable-end  rises  into 
a point  at  the  apex  like  those  which  adorn  the  main 
roof  and  each  has  elaborately-carved  eaves  with  upward 
curving  points  at  the  lower  ends.  The  whole  is  covered 
with  highly  glazed  tiles  of  rich  red,  blue,  yellow  and 
green,  arranged  in  broad,  alternate  lines  of  colour, 
while  the  wall-spaces  below  the  eaves  of  the  final 
gables  are  richly  ornamented  with  gilding  and  lacquer, 
and  sometimes  with  porcelain  plates  let  into  the  stucco. 
The  walls  within  the  building  are  covered  with  paintings 
and  with  designs  which  lead  the  eye  upward,  away 
into  a twilight  gloom  in  which  the  rafters  of  the  roof 
are  dimly  seen.  The  tiled  floor  is  bare  of  furniture 
but  for  a few  porcelain  vases  or  similar  ornaments, 
and  at  the  far  end,  facing  the  east  stands  an  Altar 
supporting  a large  gilded  image  of  the  Buddha  with 
a number  of  lesser  images  grouped  around  it.  The 
dim  light  and  the  coolness  after  the  glare  and  heat 
outside,  the  ever-present  scent  of  incense  and  the 
silence  evoke,  in  the  sentimental-minded,  feelings  akin 
to  those  experienced  in  the  interior  of  the  old-world 
churches  of  Europe  and  do  not  fail  to  impress  the  mind 
with  the  fact  that  to  a large  section  of  humanity  the 
spot  is  sacred. 

Outside  and  around  the  Bot  at  the  four  cardinal, 
and  at  the  four  intermediate,  points  are  large  flat 
stones  (Bai  Serna),  in  shape  conventionally  resembling 
the  leaves  of  the  Bo,  or  Indian-Pipul  tree,  sacred  to 
all  Buddhists  as  having  sheltered  the  Teacher  during 
the  meditation  which  made  him  omniscient.  Within 
the  Bai  Serna  the  ground  is  holy  and  is  forever 
dedicated  to  the  use  of  the  Church.  Behind  the  Bot 
to  the  west,  stands  a Phrachedi  or  reliquary  monument 
and  round  about  it  are  the  Wihan  or  image  houses 
wherein  is  deposited  a heterogeneous  coi lection  of  images 
representing  the  Buddha  at  various  stages  of  his 


500 


SIAM 


existence ; also  Phra  Rama,  the  Judge  of  Souls,  Phra 
Sanghachai,  the  dispenser  of  rain  and  fecundity,  Phra 
Torani,  Goddess  of  the  Earth,  and  other  Brahmano- 
Buddhist  deities  with  Phra  Mokalaw  and  Phra  Sarlput 
early  disciples  of  the  Buddha,  and  lother  saints.  Near 
by  is  the  Bong  Tam  or  lecture-hall,  where  sermons  are 
preached,  and  where  every  day  the  boys  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood receive  the  rudiments  of  education.  A row 
of  small  houses  stands  at  the  far  end  of  the  enclosure 
and  these,  which  are  called  Kudi,  are  the  dwelling- 
places  of  the  monlvs.  A bell-tower  and  a Sala  or  rest- 
house,  are  sometimes,  but  not  always,  found  within  the 
Wat  precincts. 

The  plan  aboA^e  described  is  adhered  to  pretty  closely 
in  the  building  of  Wat  of  average  size  and  endoAvment, 
but  amongst  the  ten  thousand  monasteries  of  Siam 
variations  in  arrangement  of  almost  every  possible  kind 
are  to  be  found.  In  some  the  Bot  is  so  large  as  to  fill 
the  entire  Wat  enclosure,  in  others  the  Wilian  is  larger 
and  more  and  more  ornate  than  the  Bot.  In  others 
again,  as  in  the  case  of  the  famous  “Wat  Phra  Patum,” 
the  Pliracliedi  is  so  large  as  altogether  to  eclipse  the 
other  buildings.  Sometimes  the  Pliracliedi  is  replaced 
by  Phi^aprang  and  sometimes  both  are  present,  and  that 
not  singly  but  in  groups  of  half-a-dozen  or  more.  At 
times  the  fancy  of  the  builder  has  inspired  him  to 
introduce  foreign  architecture,  such  as  the  true  ai’ch  or 
Corinthian  columns,  into  his  Avork,  producing  a h}"brid 
result  very  much  the  reA^erse  of  pleasing.  In  one 
instance,  at  Bang  Pa  In,  one  of  the  King’s  country 
palaces  vdiere  a large  number  of  monks  are  maintained, 
the  Wnt  is  laid  out  in  giwes  of  shade  trees,  the  Bot 
takes  the  form  of  a European  Church  with  steeple  and 
bells  complete,  and  the  Kudi  are  substantial  Aullas 
bowered  in  the  trees.  The  extent  and  the  nature  of  the 
embelishments  Avithin  and  ^ AAdthout  the  Bot  and 


THE  MONKHOOD 


501 


Wihan  also  vary  greatly,  being  naturally  in  accordance 
with  the  wealth  of  the  supporters  of  the  TFat.  Thus 
many  of  the  great  temples  of  the  capital  are  frequently 
repaired  and  improved  by  the  best  artists  the  country 
can  produce,  and  constantly  receive  gifts  in  the  shajDe 
of  clocks  and  candelabra,  wax  flowers  in  glass  cases  and 
other  ornaments  which  are  placed  on  the  altar  as  votive 
offerings,  while  those  in  the  rural  districts  are  some- 
times scarcely  better  than  empty  ruins.  To  build 
a new  Wat  is  accounted  one  of  the  surest  ways  to  make 
personal  merit,  but  to  repair  that  which  someone  else 
has  made  is  considered  merely  to  increase  the  merit  of 
that  other.  Hence  he  who  desires  to  lay  up  riches  in 
Heaven  prefers  to  erect  a new  building  rather  than  to 
repair  an  old  one  even  though  his  means  wflll  only 
permit  of  a miserable  “jerrybuilt”  affair,  and  thus  the 
country  is  dotted  with  Wat  in  every  stage  of  dilapida- 
tion and  decay,  and  also  with  many  cheap  constructions 
whose  ugliness  makes  them  so  many  blots  upon  the 
landscape.  Fortunately,  however,  for  a son  to  repair 
his  father’s  Wat,  and  so  increase  the  parental  merit  is 
accounted  a good  action,  more  especially  of  late  years, 
and  for  this  reason  many  of  the  finest  Royal  Wats  and 
other  monuments  of  the  past  have  lately  been  rescued 
from  impending  destruction. 

Life  and  Conduct  of  the  Monks 

The  daily  life  of  the  Siamese  monks,  though  governed 
by  routine,  is  not  so  minutely  ordered  as  is  the  case 
with  the  monks  of  some  other  Buddhist  countries  where 
a rigid  observance  of  the  letter  of  the  Law  is  regarded 
as  being  more  meritorious  than  any  slightly  irregular 
action,  how’ever  useful  and  how'ever  truly  in  accordance 
wfith  the  often  beautiful  spirit  thereof.  Certain  clearly 
defined  actions  and  duties  are  demanded  of  him,  but 


502 


SIAM 


for  the  rest  he  is  allowed  to  dispose  of  his  time  as  he 
likes,  provided  always  that  he  avoids  the  thousand  and 
one  specified  sins  the  list  of  which  he  has  by  heart,  and 
to  commit  any  one  of  which,  trivial  as  many  of  them 
may  seem,  is  to  imperil  all  the  merit  which  the 
monastic  life  causes  to  accumulate. 

On  rising  in  the  morning  at  dawn,  the  monk  bathes 
himself,  joins  his  brethren  in  the  Bot  or  Wihan, 
whither  they  are  summoned  by  the  sound  of  bell  or 
drum,  and  for  a few  minutes  recites  there  the  usual 
prayer-like  formulas,  and  helps  to  sweep  out  and  clean 
the  sacred  precincts.  He  then  takes  his  begging  bowl 
and  goes  forth  on  his  daily  quest  for  alms,  which  he 
collects  by  the  simple  process  of  standing  in  meditative 
attitude  before  each  house  he  comes  to  until  the 
occupants  bring  food  and  place  it  in  the  bowl.  He  is 
forbidden  by  the  Rule  to  ask  for  alms  or  in  fact  to 
speak  at  all,  and  even  the  device  practised  in  Burma  of 
calling  attention  to  his  presence  by  sounding  a small 
triangular  gong,  is  forbidden  him.  He  eats  of  the  food 
thus  collected  as  soon  as  he  gets  back  to  the  Wat,  and 
again  at  eleven  o’clock,  the  interval  being  occupied  in 
meditation  or  in  teaching.  After  midday  no  monk  may 
eat  any  solid  food,  though  it  is  permitted  to  drink  tea 
or  coconut  milk,  to  chew  betel,  and  to  smoke.  The 
afternoon  is  given  up  to  the  study  of  the  Pali  language, 
R)  reading  the  sacred  books  and  to  meditation.  In  the 
evening  the  great  drum  or  bell  again  summons  the 
fraternity  to  prayers  and  afterwards  a little  walking 
exercise  brings  the  day’s  occupations  to  a close.  The 
sound  of  the  temple  bell  at  nightfall  is  the  signal  for 
the  return  of  all  monks  who  may  be  beyond  the 
precincts. 

Meditation,  which  Buddhists  regard  as  the  highest 
means  of  self-improvement,  is  the  chief  business  of  the 
monk  and  is  in  fact  the  raison  diHre  of  the  monastic 


A MOXK 


I'lh'to  : Ani^viio. 


LIFE  OF  THE  MONKS 


503 


life.  The  most  elementary  form,  called  by  the  Siamese 
Kammahtan,  consists  in  the  consideration  of  one  or 
other  of  the  elements  of  life  until  that  element  resolves 
itself  into  a manifestation  of  ‘ change,  sorrow  and  illu- 
sion.’ The  repetition  of  a number  of  Pali  formulas  which 
are  learnt  by  heart,  is  supposed  to  assist  this  meditation 
but  it  is  probable  that  the  mere  mouthing  of  a string 
of  senseless  words  in  a half-understood  language  is 
in  effect  the  reverse  of  an  intellectual  stimulant.  A 
second  form  of  meditation  is  Phawana  or  the  considera- 
tion of  charity,  pity,  joy  and  sorrow  with  a view  to 
arriving  at  an  accurate  analysis  of  the  pleasures  and 
the  pains  of  all  beings,  and  to  the  cultivation  of  a con- 
dition of  impervious  security  removing  the  mind  beyond 
the  reach  of  hate  or  of  affection  or  of  any  other  passion 
and  into  a state  of  absolute  equanimity.  A third  form 
of  meditation  which  the  Siamese  called  Chan  (Sanscrit, 
Dhyana)  is  a form  of  abstract  thought  or  ecstatic  trance, 
the  successful  practitioner  of  which  attains  to  super- 
natural powers  such  as  those  of  invisibility,  of  flying, 
of  assuming  other  forms,  of  attaining  miraculous  sight 
and  hearing,  and  of  thought-reading.  It  is  by  the 
exercise  of  Chan  that  the  astral  body  becomes  separated 
from  the  corporal.  The  material-minded  Siamese,  how- 
ever, is  not  of  the  stuff  from  which  Mahatmas  are  made. 
He  is  content  to  leave  such  interference  with  the  courses 
of  nature  to  the  exponents  of  Northern  Buddhism  and 
is  apt  to  look  upon  the  professors  of  Chan  as  charlatans. 
By  the  rule  of  the  Order  a monk  is  allowed  the  possession 
of  eight  things,  namely  three  cloths,  all  of  which  are 
worn  at  the  same  time  and  which  the  wearer  is  supposed 
never  to  put  off,  a waist-girdle,  a begging-bowl,  a razor, 
a needlecase  and  a small  cloth  through  which  to  filter 
drinking-water,  not  for  reasons  of  personal  hygiene  but 
to  prevent  the  accidental  destruction  of  life  by  the 
swallowing  of  insects.  To  these  were  long  ago  added  by 


504 


SIAM 


common  consent  a fan  and,  for  the  annual  pilgrimage, 
an  umbrella  which  serves  as  both  parasol  and  tent,  and 
two  or  three  water  vessels  such  as  enamelled  iron 
tumblers  and  a teapot.  But  with  the  passage  of  time 
and  the  growth  of  civilisation  the  rules  of  absolute 
poverty  and  profound  humility  by  which  the  Order  is 
nominally  bound  have  undergone  considerable  relaxa- 
tion. Almost  every  monk  now  possesses  books,  writing 
materials,  several  changes  of  clothes  and  these  often  of 
costly  silk  instead  of  second  hand  rags,  tools  and  im- 
plements, pots  and  pans,  and  other  utensils,  the  gifts 
of  the  pious,  Avhich  should  be  the  property  of  the  Wat 
but  are  not.  Also  the  modern  monk  decorates  his  cell 
with  pictures,  mats,'  and  other  ornaments  and  it  is  not 
uncommon  for  monks  in  Bangkok  to  drive  in  carriages, 
while  the  Yellow  Robe  has  even  been  seen  fluttering 
from  a motor  car,  the  holy  occuj)ant  permitting  himself 
the  pleasure  of  this  exhilarating  method  of  locomotion 
possibly  because  nowhere  in  any  part  of  the  LaAv  has 
the  Buddha  specially  interdicted  automobilism.  It  is 
not  of  course  to  be  expected  that  amongst  the  enormous 
number  of  Siamese  monks  there  will  not  be  many  who 
are  idle  and  worthless  and  a disgrace  to  the  Order,  but 
the  vast  majority  attempt  to  follow  the  Rule  according 
to  their  simple  lights  which  are,  to  live  in  celibacy,  to 
eat  frugally,  and  to  recite  formulas  of  meditation  which 
usually  have  no  particular  meaning  for  them,  whenever 
the  mind  is  unoccuiDied,  These  latter  certainly  achieve 
the  first  aim  of  the  Order  Avhich  is  to  live  Avithout 
sinning,  and  are,  on  the  Avhole,  worthy  of  the  res^^ect 
Avhich  is  paid  to  them  by  the  laity.  Many  monks, 
hoAvever,  rise  above  the  level  of  placid  nonentity  and 
contented  ignorance  Avdiich  marks  the  average,  and  these 
represent  the  most  intellectual  part  of  the  nation.  They 
are  profound  students  of  Pali  and  of  the  sacred  books  of 
their  religion  ; they  are  the  grammarians  and  historians 


LIFE  OF  THE  MONKS  505 


of  their  country  and  by  their  saintly  lives  they  raise 
the  whole  moral  standard  both  of  Siam  and  also  of 
Buddhism.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  idle  and  the 
wicked  form  too  large  a section  of  the  monkhood  to 
pass  unnoticed.  Occasionally  the  Order  is  made  use  of 
as  an  escape  from  liability  to  military  service  or  to  the 
payment  of  debts  and  too  often  persons  who  have  com- 
mitted serious  crimes  seek  refuge  from  the  punishment 
for  their  misdeeds  in  the  inviolable  sanctity  of  the 
Yellow  robe.  Again,  many  of  the  monks,  finding  the 
ignomnt  peasantry  only  too  ready  to  endow  them  with 
supernatural  poAvers  and  being  unable  to  resist  the 
temptations  offered  by  popular  credulity,  so  far  neglect 
the  tenets  of  their  religion  as  to  engage  in  the  manu- 
facture and  sale  of  charms  of  every  kind  and  often 
become  either  half-mad  believers  in  their  oavii  poAvers  or 
degenerate  into  mere  charlatans.  The  influence  of  these 
is  often  most  pernicious  both  because  of  the  encourage- 
ment they  offer  to  the  practice  of  Avitchcraft  in  many 
forms  and  because  of  the  occasional  political  upheaA^als 
and  outbreaks  of  Avhich  their  preachings  and  prophecies 
are  the  cause  in  the  rural  districts. 

Buddhist  Festiawls  and  Cereaionies 

Four  days  of  the  Buddhist  lunar  month,  namely  the 
8th  of  the  Avaxing  moon,  full  moon,  and  the  8tli  and 
loth  or  last  day  of  the  AA^aning,  are  set  apart  as  minor 
festUals  and  holidays  to  be  devoted  to  visiting  the 
Wat  and  to  the  performance  of  other  religious  exercises, 
principal  amongst  AAdiich  is  the  offering  of  food  to  the 
monks.  Apart  from  these  forty-eight  days,  Avhich 
roughly  corres2Aond  to  the  Christian  Sundays,  there  are 
many  others  devoted  to  the  public  celebration  of 
important  religious  observances  during  AAdiich  the 
Avhole  population  makes  holiday. 


506 


SIAM 


Tlie  Khao  Wasan  (or  entering  of  the  rainy  season), 
and  Ok  Wasan  {or  coming  out  of  the  rainy  season) 
festivals  mark  the  beginning  and  end  of  what  has  been 
called  the  Buddhist  Lent,  a period  of  three  and  a half 
lunar  months,  beginning  on  the  first  waning  of  the 
eighth  month,  or  about  the  month  of  July,  during 
which  the  monks  may  not  travel  but  are  supposed  to 
give  themselves  up  to  fasting  and  special  meditation, 
while  the  laity  also  variously  restricts  its  usual 
pleasures.  The  season  has  some  points  of  resemblance 
with  the  Christian  Lent  and  the  festivals  with  which 
it  opens  and  closes  may  be  likened  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Carnival,  shorn  of  its  more  boisterous  mani- 
festations. The  chief  observance  of  the  holiday  consists 
in  the  donning  of  fine  raiment  and  visiting  the  Wat 
with  food  and  other  offerings  for  the  monks.  The 
period  of  Wasan  was  originally  that  during  which, 
before  the  existence  of  monasteries,  the  wandering 
mendicant  monks  settled  for  the  rainy  season  in 
temporary  huts  provided  by  the  people  and  thus, 
owing  to  the  presence  of  the  monk,  it  came  to  be 
regarded  as  the  season  most  appropriate  to  the  exercise 
of  religion. 

The  Kan  Wisakha  festival  commemorates  the  birth 
and  death  of  the  Buddha  and  his  attainment  of  the 
Buddhahood,  all  three  of  which  events  are  said  to  have 
occurred  on  the  same  day,  i.e.,  the  15th  or  full  moon 
of  the  6th  lunar  month,  or  about  tlie  month  of  April. 
This  festival  continues  for  three  days  and  is  marked  by 
the  giving  of  alms,  the  making  of  offerings  to  the 
Buddha,  the  feeding  of  the  monks  and  the  assembling 
of  the  people  to  hear  special  recitations  and  sermons. 
Illuminations  and  torchlight  processions  are  features 
of  the  occasion. 

The  That  Khrathin,  literally  the  ‘ laying  down  of 
the  holy  cloth,’  or  presentation  of  the  monastic  robes. 


MOXKS  SUPPLIED  WITH  FOOD  BY  A MERIT-MAKER, 


« ^ • ■ 


BUDDHIST  FESTIVALS 


507 


is  the  most  prominent,  if  not  the  most  important,. 
Buddhist  festival  observed  in  Siam.  It  begins  with 
the  second  half  of  the  eleventh  lunar  month,  or  about 
October,  and  continues  until  the  following  full  moon, 
that  is,  for  one  lunar  month.  During  this  period  the 
monks  of  every  Wat  are  supplied  by  their  supporters 
with  robes  to  wear  during  the  ensuing  year,  and 
everything  possible  is  done  to  make  the  ceremony  of 
presentation  an  imposing  function.  A very  large  number 
of  Wat  are  classed  as  Wat  Luang,  that  is,  they  subsist 
upon  the  Royal  bounty  and  in  theory  the  King  is  sup- 
posed to  present  the  robes  personally  at  each  of  these. 
Practically  this  is  impossible  and  various  nobles  and 
officers  of  State  are  deputed  to  ret>resent  Royalty  at 
the  more  distant,  a few  only  of  the  most  important 
being  reserved  for  the  visits  of  His  Majesty  in  person. 
The  processions  which  accompany  the  King  to  the 
Wat  are  arranged  on  a magnificent  scale  with  the 
most  careful  regard  to  spectacular  effect,  and  some  of 
them  form  highly  interesting  exliibitions  of  the  fast 
disappearing  pageantry  of  Old  Siam.  To  the  Wat 
nearest  the  Palace,  the  King  is  carried,  seated  on  a 
throne  borne  on  a platform  upon  the  shoulders  of 
a large  number  of  men.  The  streets  are  lined  by  tlie 
military,  who,  with  the  police,  keep  back  the  thousands 
of  people  thronging  to  see  Majesty  go  by.  The  cortege 
is  headed  by  the  Royal  Body-guard  with  other  battalions 
of  modern  equipped  infantry.  Soldiers  and  palace- 
guards  follow,  dressed  in  the  costume  of  long  ago, 
and  a body  of  blue-clad  lictors  immediately  precedes 
and  surrounds  the  King,  each  man  carrying  a bundle 
of  canes,  now  a mere  badge  of  office,  but  in  former  times 
used  to  chastise  any  person  in  the  crowd  who  dared  to 
raise  his  head  or  to  move  from  the  prostrate  position 
demanded  by  the  presence  of  Royalty.  The  Throne  is 
borne  along  with  its  Royal  Occupant  closely  surrounded 


.508 


SIAM 


by  a compact  crowd  of  household  officers,  servants, 
slaves  and  relays  of  carriers,  all  moving  together  at 
a rapid  walk  but  with  no  apparent  order.  A number 
of  royal  umbrellas,  fans  and  fantastic-shaped  halberds 
and  similar  weapons,  are  carried  by  handles  long 
enough  for  the  Royal  person  to  be  shaded  by  the  first 
and  to  have  the  others  practically  within  reach.  The 
throne  is  magnificently  gilt,  the  King  is  resplendent 
with  gold,  sparkling  jewels  and  ancient  arms  flash  and 
glitter,  and  the  bright  tropic  sun  shines  once  more  on 
the  pomp  and  circumstance  of  former  days.  After  the 
King  there  follow  several  of  the  first  Princes  of  the 
land,  each  borne  along  in  a gaily  coloured  palanquin 
with  a gilded  roof  but  open  sides,  and  surrounded  by 
a crowd  of  servants  and  slaves,  bare-headed  and  shoe- 
less, who  hurry  by,  each  group  crowding  round  their 
master  as  closely  as  may  be,  and  bearing  amongst  them 
his  sword,  betel-box,  spittoon,  teapot,  etc.,  all  implements 
of  gold  or  silver.  It  is  probable  that  the  crowding  and 
hurrying  originated  in  the  old  days  when  Court  intrigue 
still  bore  assassination  as  its  fruit  and  when  it  was 
consequently  necessary  for  those  in  high  places  to  be 
ever  on  their  guard  and  surrounded  by  their  own 
people.  On  arrival  at  the  Wat  the  King  is  received 
with  the  beating  of  drums,  the  blowing  of  horns, 
trumpets  and  the  conch-shell  instrument  of  the  ancient 
Brahmans,  and  with  the  strains  of  military  bands 
])raying  the  national  anthem  in  clamorous  rivalry  with 
the  music  of  eld.  A guard-of-honoiir  presents  arms. 
His  Majesty  alights  by  means  of  a flight  of  steps  built 
of  iDi'ick,  against  which  the  Royal  platform  comes  to 
rest,  and  taking  a set  of  yellow  robes  from  the  great 
number  placed  ready  near  the  door,  enters  the  Bot 
and  lays  his  offering  upon  an  altar,  at  the  same  time 
lighting  with  a taper  five  candles  and  five  incense 
sticks  which  are  placed  ready  there.'  He  then  bows 


BUDDHIST  FESTIVALS 


509 


himself  before  the  monks  and  the  statue  of  the  Buddha 
and  makes  the  profession  of  faith  ‘ I honour  the  Buddha, 
I honour  the  Law,  I honour  the  Order,’  after  which  he 
renews  his  vows  to  avoid  the  deadly  sins.  The  yellow 
cloths  are  then  duly  presented  to  the  monks,  the 
Superior  of  whom  acknowledges  the  gifts ; the  pro- 
fession of  faith  is  once  more  made  before  the  altar  and 
His  Majesty  leaves  the  Wat,  mounts  to  his  throne  and 
is  borne  off  amid  the  blare  of  trumpets  and  the  beating 
of  drums. 

Processions  by  horse  carriage,  and  now-a-days  by 
motor  car,  are  arranged  for  the  Royal  visits  to  more 
distant  Wat,  but  the  finest  and  most  interesting  of  all 
the  celebrations  are  the  f>rocessions  by  water  to  the 
Wat  Luang,  some  of  the  finest  temples  in  the  country, 
which  stand  on  the  river  bank.  The  wonderful  royal 
barges  of  Siam,  in  reality  gigantic  dugout  canoes,  each 
one  hewn  from  a single  tree,  were  the  admiration  of  the 
earliest  European  travellers  who  visited  the  country, 
and  illustrations  of  them  are  given  in  more  than  one 
book  of  travel  of  the  17th  century.  The  royal  barges  of 
to-day  are  constructed  on  models  similar  to  those  of  the 
kings  of  Ayuthia,  and  are  no  whit  less  beautiful.  The 
most  elaborate  of  them  have  large  high-towering  figure- 
heads representing  Nak,  Khrut,  and  other  mythical 
creatures,  but  these  are  rarely  seen,  the  King  preferring 
a more  simple  type  with  pointed  prow  and  no  figure- 
head, but  with  a high  stern.  The  vessels  are  about  160 
feet  long,  and  of  7 feet  beam  in  the  broadest  part,  with 
smooth,  rounded  bottom  and  l^eautiful  lines  running  uj) 
into  a graceful  curve  at  the  tapering  stern.  Tiie  sides 
are  intricately  carved  and  heavily  gilded,  and  from  the 
I30W  and  stern  depend  large  tassels  of  Yak  hair,  two  at 
each  end  with  a piece  of  cloth-of-gold  brocade  hanging 
between  them,  charms  to  keep  away  evil  spirits.  A 
little  aft  of  midships,  a pavilion  with  cloth-of-gold  roof 


510 


SIAM 


and  side-curtains  is  supported  on  gilded  pillars,  and 
the  boat  is  manned  by  seventy  paddlers  seated  in  pairs 
forward  and  aft  of  the  pavilion.  At  the  stern  are  the 
two  steersmen,  and  near  the  bow  an  individual  stands 
on  a small  platform  where  he  controls  the  stroke  and 
keeps  the  time  by  tapping  on  the  deck  with  the  butt-end 
of  a long  silver  spear.  The  crew,  who  are  dressed  in 
the  crimson  uniform  of  the  warriors  of  ancient  Siam, 
are  well  drilled  and  flourish  their  long  paddles  in 
perfect  time,  raising  them  high  in  the  air  at  the  end  of 
each  stroke.  The  King,  seated  in  one  such  vessel  Avith 
the  offerings  for  the  Wat  in  another,  sets  out  preceded 
by  his  guard-boats  and  surrounded  by  his  princes  and 
nobles  in  similar  but  smaller  canoe-barges,  and  followed 
l^y  countless  boats  of  every  description,  proceeds  Avith 
beating  of  gongs  and  firing  of  cannon  from  the  shore, 
makes  his  offerings  at  the  riverside  Wat  in  the  manner 
already  described,  and  returns  with  the  same  ceremony 
to  the  palace  in  the  evening.  All  through  the  month 
the  processions  continue  at  intervals  ; the  people,  Avhen 
not  engaged  in  making  their  OAvn  private  offerings  form 
croAvds  of  delighted  spectators,  and  at  the  end  of  it  all 
the  monks  of  every  Wat  are  provided  with  robes  more 
than  sufficient  to  clothe  them  during  the  coming  year, 
AAffiile,  Avhat  Avith  offerings,  street  decorations  and  local 
ceremonies  in  CA^ery  corner  of  the  country,  a satisfactory 
stock  of  merit  has  been  placed  to  the  account  of 
everybody. 

Less  important  regularly  recurring  Buddhist  festivals 
are  the  Fhrahat  pilgrimage,  the  Fliu  Kliao  Thong  fair  and 
tlie  Kaiv  Phra  Sai. 

The  adoration  of  the  Sacred  Foot-print  has  from 
very  earliest  times  been  a characteristic  of  the  Buddhist 
religion.  Amongst  the  innumerable  distinctive  marks 
Avhich  the  Life  {Pathomma  Soni'photiyan)  mentions  as 
appearing  on  the  body  of  the  Buddha,  marks  by  Avhich 


BUDDHIST  FESTIVALS 


511 


his  future  Buddhahood  was  revealed  to  certain  learned 
Brahmans  soon  after  he  was  born,  are  included  certain 
peculiarities  of  the  feet,  such  as  the  equal  length  of  the 
toes,  the  backward  projection  of  the  heel,  and  above  all, 
the  lines  and  signs  on  the  sole  of  the  foot  in  the  middle 
of  which  is  a representation  of  the  Chakra  or  Wheel  of 
the  Law,  the  means  of  exterminating  sin  and  the  emblem 
of  the  Circle  of  Transmigration.  In  the  Life  the 
enumeration  of  the  signs  begins  : — ‘ On  each  of  his  feet 
is  a figure  of  the  beautiful  wheel  Chakra  with  its 
thousand  rays  and  spokes,  all  richly  adorned  as  if  it 
were  a wheel  of  emeralds.  . . . Around  the  Chakra  are 
one  hundred  and  eight  other  figures,  namely  the  crystal 
spear,  a female  figure  with  ornaments,  the  flower 
Phutson,  a chain  and  neck-jewel,  a Bai  Si  standard, 
a wicker  seat,’  and  so  on  through  a whole  catalogue  of 
pictures  of  the  most  extraordinary  and  diverse  nature. 

Long  after  the  departure  of  the  Buddha  from  this 
world  and  from  the  circle  of  existence,  certain  footprint- 
like marks  Avhich  were  discovered  in  various  parts  of 
India,  revealing  some  real  or  fancied  traces  of  the  above 
signs,  and  more  especially  of  the  Chakra,  came  to  be 
revered  as  the  footprints  of  the  Buddha  in  much  the 
same  manner  as  the  so-called  footprints  on  the  top  of 
the  Mount  of  Olives,  and  in  the  Mosque  of  Omar  at 
Jerusalem,  and  at  Poitiers  in  France,  and  in  other 
i:)laces  are  locally  worshipped  as  those  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Xow  the  religious  works  of  the  people  of  Ceylon, 
Burma,  and  Siam  severally  maintain  that  the  Buddha 
miraculously  visited  each  of  those  countries  and  the 
holy  books  are  now  supported  by  occular  evidence  in 
the  shape  of  footprints  in  all  three.  That  on  the  summit 
of  Adam’s  peak  in  Ceylon,  said  to  have  been  discovered 
about  the  year  90  b.c.  by  a king  engaged  in  hunting, 
is  the  oldest  by  far.  The  footprint  at  Shwe  Zet  Taw' 
in  Burma,  set  deep  in  a high  rock  standing  amid  the 


512  : SIAM 

beautiful  scenery  of  the  Yoma  foothills  and  washed  on 
three  sides  by  the  Avaters  of  the  Man  RiA^er,  Avas  revealed 
in  a dream  to  a monk  in  the  14th  century,  Avhile  that 
of  Phrabat  in  the  hills  which  rise  out  of  the  plain  of 
Central  Siam  a little  to  the  east  of  Lopburi,  AA^as 
discovered  by  a hunter  in  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century  a.d. 

The  Phrahat  or,  in  full,  Phra  Phnttlia  Bat,  that  is,  the 
‘ Sacred  Foot  ’ or  ‘Holy  Foot,’  is  covered  by  a Moradop, 
a small  square  temple  of  brickAvork  surrounded  by 
carved  pillars  Avhich  support  a graceful,  tapering,  com- 
pound roof  of  seven  stages  ending  in  a tall  thin  spire 
surmounted  by  a Hti  or  coiwentional  royal  umbrella. 
The  seven  eaves  of  .the  roof  are  highl}^  ornamented  and 
the  Avhole  structure,  perhaps  sixty  feet  high,  is  richly 
gilt  and  has  a most  beautiful  effect  AA^hen  seen  Avith  the 
sim  shining  upon  it  or  Avhen  reflecting  the  limpid  rays 
of  the  tropic  moon.  Flights  of  steps  lead  up  to  the 
platform  AARereon  the  temple  stands  and  the  rock  floor 
AAMthin  is  coA^ered  by  a siHer  Avire  carpet  AA^hile  the 
AA-alls  are  decorated  AAuth  frescos  depicting  the  usual 
scenes  from  the  ‘ Life.’  The  footjDrint  itself,  a depression 
in  the  rock  about  18  inches  deep  and  four  and  a half  feet 
long,  is  under  a canopy  in  the  middle  of  the  temple  and 
is  usually  covered  by  a Avooden  casing.  It  has  no 
particular  resemblance  to  a footprint  and  there  is  no 
appearance  of  the  Chakra  and  other  supernatural 
marks  of  the  Buddha’s  foot,  but  a gilt  plate  on  the 
Avail  shoAvs  all  the  marks  Avhich  should  be  there  and 
AA^hich  are  siip2:>osed  to  have  been  obliterated  by  an 
accident.  To  this  shrine  come  CA-ery  year  at  the  full 
moon  of  the  third  month,  that  is  about  January  or 
February,  great  croAvds  of  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of 
the  country,  and  especially  from  Bangkok  some  100 
miles  distant.  Formerly  the  journey  Avas  made  by  boat 
to  Lo2:>buri  and  thence  on  foot,  in  carts  or  on  horse  or 


BUDDHIST  FESTIVALS 


513 


elepliant-back,  to  the  Phrabat  hills  and  occupied  many 
days.  Now,  special  trains  take  the  pilgrims  in  a few 
hours  from  the  capital  to  the  nearest  station  on  the  main 
line  whence  a light  railway  carries  them  direct  to  the 
shrine.  All  through  the  da}^s  immediately  preceding 
the  full  moon,  gaily  dressed  pilgrims  throng  the  steps 
of  the  shrine  and  prostrate  themselves  there,  making 
offerings  according  to  their  means,  of  toys,  pictures, 
clocks,  mirrors  and  other  queer  objects  bought  in  the 
Bangkok  shops,  or  sticking  small  patches  of  gold  leaf 
on  to  every  available  space  of  the  wall  and  pillars  of  the 
temple.  From  morning  to  night  the  good  work  con- 
tinues while  little  bells  hanging  under  the  seven  eaves, 
tinkle  in  the  breeze,  and  the  deep  and  mellow  sound 
of  great  gongs  struck  by  the  worshippers  ascends  to 
Heaven  together  with  the  scent  of  a thousand  burning 
incense  sticks,  inviting  attention  to  the  zeal  of  devotees 
below.  At  night  the  crowds  find  sleeping  space  in  the 
numerous  Salas,  or  rest-houses,  which  surround  the 
shrine  and  the  moonlight  hours  are  passed  in  mild 
flirtation  and  merry  making,  interspersed  with  holy 
readings  and  recitations  by  the  monks.  The  Phrahat  in 
the  hills  east  of  Lopburi  is  not  the  only  Footprint  in 
Siam  though  it  is  by  far  the  best  known.  The  Phrahat 
Si  Roi,  not  far  from  Chieng  Mai,  enjoys  considerable 
attention  from  the  people  of  the  northern  city  and  its 
environs,  while  several  others  of  merely  local  rex^utation 
are  situated  in  the  remoter  districts,  notably  that  on  the 
island  of  Puket. 

Phu  Khao  Thong  Fair.  During  a few  evenings  of  late 
December  or  early  January  an  annual  fair  is  held  round 
about  the  Phu  Khao  Thong  or  Golden  Hill,  a high  mound 
of  brick  and  earthwork  surmounted  by  a Phrachedi  and 
situated  just  outside  the  eastern  walls  of  Bangkok  city. 
The  object  of  the  fair  is  to  afford  an  opportunity  for 
the  making  of  merit  by  purcliasing  offerings  for,  and 

2 K 


514 


SIAM 


by  adoring,  the  sacred  relics  of  the  Buddha  which  are 
deposited  in  the  shrine  at  the  top  of  the  hill.  Booths 
for  the  sale  of  offerings  are  erected  at  the  sides  of  walks 
laid  out  round  the  foot  of  the  hill,  theatrical  perform- 
ances and  displays  of  fireworks  continue  all  night  and 
a dense  crowd  of  chaffing  youths  and  laughing  damsels 
moves  slowly  to  and  fro  and  up  and  down  the  long 
spiral  stairway  giving  access  to  the  shrine.  The  scene 
is  illuminated  with  pink  paper  lanterns  shaped  like 
lotus  flowers ; — temporary  restaurants  provide  the 
exhausted  merit-maker  with  food  of  all  kinds,  toys 
and  fairings  of  every  description  are  to  be  had  and 
everybody  spends  his  money  and  is  happy.  The  fair  was 
formerly  marred  ‘ by  a good  deal  of  rowdyism  and 
thieving  in  which  soldiers  and  sailors  off  duty  were 
conspicuous  but  improved  disci23line  and  better  police 
arrangements  have  now  all  but  eliminated  the  lawless 
element. 

The  Kaw  Phra  Sai  festival  take^  place  in  the  dry 
season  and  has  for  its  object  the  obtaining  of  fresh  sand 
wherewith  to  strew  the  precincts  of  the  Wat.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  the  analogy  between  this  ceremony 
and  the  ancient  rush-bearing  festival  still  observed  in  a 
few  old  English  churches.  The  sand  is  brought  to  the 
Wat  in  carts,  in  boats,  in  baskets,  or  in  anything  in 
which  it  can  be  conveyed,  and  is  deposited  in  conical 
heaps  Avhich  are  decorated  Avith  little  flags  and  moulded 
to  resemble  minature  Phrachedi,  the  depth  of  a man’s 
piety  being  naturally  discoAwed  by  the  height  of  his 
pagoda.  The  betler  classes  usually  content  themselves 
Avith  paying  for  a sand  pagoda  which  can  be  had  in  any 
of  three  sizes  and  placed  in  situ,  at  a regular  fixed  tariff 
advertised  in  lists  Avhich  are  circulated  shortly  before 
tlie  festival,  and  thus  merit  is  acquired  by  many  at  a 
small  cost  and  Avith  the  minimum  of  trouble.  The 
people,  as  usual,  make  this  festival  an  occasion  for 


BUDDHIST  FESTIVALS 


515 


feeding  the  monks,  for  pervading  the  Wat  dressed  in 
their  best  clothes  and  for  having  a good  time  generally. 

Other  Observances 

It  remains  to  notice  some  other  Buddhist  festivals  which 
occur  at  frequent  but  irregular  intervals.  These  are 
the  accompaniments  of  the  dedication  of  new  Wat,  the 
casting  of  images  of  the  Buddha,  the  installation  of  such 
images  in  their  temple,  the  cremation  of  dead  monks, 
and  many  other  matters.  The  reception  of  the  Holy 
Relics,  said  to  be  almost  certainly  those  of  the  Buddha 
and  a portion  of  which  was  sent  to  Siam  by  the  Clovern- 
ment  of  India  some  ten  years  ago,  was  the  occasion  for 
an  especially  noteworthy  festival,  marked  by  much 
public  rejoicing  and  merry  making.  The  subsequent 
distribution  of  the  same  relics  between  Siam,  Ceylon, 
Burma  and  Japan,  effected  in  Bangkok  under  the  direction 
of  His  Majesty  the  King  performed  with  an  elaborate 
ceremony  in  which  representative  monks  of  all  those 
countries  took  part. 

The  dedication  of  the  Wat  Beneiiamahophit  within  the 
Royal  gardens  of  Dusit,  the  casting  of  a great  bronze 
image  I)y  the  late  King  in  person  at  Pitsanulok  and  the 
removal  of  the  ancient  image  of  Buddha  known  as 
Chinnaraj  from  the  Xorth  and  its  installation  in 
Bangkok  are  amongst  the  most  elaborate  occasional 
festivals  of  recent  years.  The  last  culminated  in  a 
magnificent  procession  by  water  when  the  image  was 
conveyed  to  its  present  resting  place  in  a temj^iorary 
Momdop  temple  constructed  on  rafts,  accompanied  by 
the  King  and  his  whole  Court  in  State  barges  and 
followed  by  thousands  of  gaily  decorated  boats  of  every 
description,  the  whole  forming  an  impressive  spectacle 
which  those  who  witnessed  it  will  not  soon  forget. 


516 


SIAM 


Brahman  Ceremonies  and  Observances 

In  addition  to  the  purely  Buddhist  ceremonies  and 
observances  of  which  some  few  have  just  been  detailed, 
there  are  man 3^  others  in  which  Brahmanism  pre- 
dominates, these  absorb  an  almost  equal  amount  of  the 
time  and  attention  of  the  Siamese.  The  life  of  each 
individual,  more  especially  during  childhood,  is  punc- 
tuated by  the  performance  of  personal  religious  rites 
which  mark  the  various  stages  of  his  career,  and  which 
being  of  great  antiquity  and  of  undoubted  Brahman 
origin  prove  even  more  clearl}^  than  do  the  relics  of 
ancient  cities,  the  extent  to  which  Brahmanism  at  one 
time  prevailed  in  the  countiy. 

The  Indian  Brahman  of  to-day  is  relentlessly  pursued 
from  his  birth  onwards  by  religious  ceremonial.  The 
naming,  weaning,  first  footsteps,  first  speech,  the 
adoption  of  clothing,  ear-boring,  the  cutting  of  the  hair, 
and  the  assumption  of  the  sacred  thread  are  all  occasions 
for  the  exercise  of  elaborate  ritual.  After  all  these 
comes  the  ceremony  of  marriage,  and  finall}^  when  he  has 
occupied  himself  for  a few  j-ears  in  putting  his  cliildren 
through  the  selfsame  ordeals,  he  disappears  from  the 
world  amid  the  flames  of  the  all-important  ceremoii}^  of 
cremation.  There  is  evidence  that  most  if  not  all  of 
these  Brahman  ceremonies  were  formerly  observed 
throughout  Further  India  by  the  more  civilised  peoj^les, 
but  that  in  course  of  time  the  different  races  occupjdng 
tliat  part  of  the  Avorld  specialised  in  the  matter,  and 
came  by  accident  or  design,  to  attach  particular  im- 
portance to  some  of  them  AAdiile  observing  the  others 
] )erfunctoril3^  or  not  at  all.  Thus  the  Burmese  and 
Laos  pa}"  great  attention  to  the  naming  and  ear-boring 
ceremonies  Avhile  entirely  neglecting  most  of  the  others 
except  where  ] >ersons  of  royal  descent  or  of  high 


BRAHMAN  CEREMONIES  517 


importance  are  concerned,  and  the  Mohammedan  Malays 
of  Southern  Siam,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  such  things 
are  anathema  to  the  good  Mussulman,  perform  the 
Brahman  ritual  provided  for  celebrating  the  first 
footsteps  of  children,  and  have  got  the  Islamic  rites  of 
circumcision  mixed  up  with  those  of  the  Brahman 
topknot  cutting  to  an  altogether  surprising  degree. 
The  Siamese  consider  the  naming,  the  tox^kiiot  cutting 
and  the  cremation  as  ceremonies  of  the  first  iinx^ortance, 
that  of  marriage  desirable  but  by  no  means  necessary, 
and  the  rest  of  no  account.  In  Siam,  however,  a number 
of  public  ceremonies  of  pronounced  Brahmanistic 
character  are  regularly  observed,  so  that  although  so 
many  of  the  ancient  private  rites  have  been  discarded 
there  remains  enough  of  Brahman  ceremonial  to 
keep  the  people  fairly  busy  in  the  intervals  between  the 
Buddhist  festivals.  The  Brahman  ceremonies  are  by 
no  means  repugnant  to  Buddhism,  and  the  monks  of  the 
Holy  Order  deem  it  cpiite  in  consonance  with  the  Eule 
to  be  present  at  their  celebration,  and  to  improve  the 
occasion  by  the  recital  of  Buddhist  homilies  reminding 
their  hearers  of  the  sorrows  and  vanities  of  this  wicked 
world.  Sometimes,  and  this  more  especially  in  the 
rural  districts  where  Brahman  professors  are  seldom 
available,  the  monks  even  officiate  at  the  rites  themselves. 

The  cutting  of  the  topknot,  marking  the  passage  of  the 
individual  operated  upon  from  childhood  to  adolescence, 
is  the  most  important  ceremony  of  Siamese  ]>rivate  life. 
The  observance  has  undoubtedly  come  to  the  Siamese 
by  Brahman  agency  and  not  by  Avay  of  Buddhism.  It 
was  regularly  observed  in  India  long  Itefore  the 
appearance  of  the  Buddha,  and  judging  by  the  pre- 
valence of  a ceremoiiA’  of  tonsure  in  many  Avidely 
separated  parts  of  the  AA'orld  as  an  indication  of  a iicav 
phase  of  life,  or  of  the  deA’otion  of  the  individual  to  a 
set  purpose,  it  is  probably  one  of  the  most  ancient 


518 


SIAM 


ceremonies  of  mankind.  In  Siam,  in  spite  of  its  non- 
Buddhist  origin,  the  monks  take  considerable  part  in 
the  ceremony  which  the  majority  of  the  people  believe 
to  be  a Buddhist  rite. 

Shortly  before  arrival  at  the  age  of  puberty,  that  is  at 
about  eleven  years  with  girls  and  thirteen  with  boys, 
an  auspicious  da}^  and  moment  for  the  celebration  is 
fixed  by  a Brahman  astrologer,  or  in  default  of  such  a 
person,  by  a complaisant  monk  or  other  soothsayer. 
When  the  time  approaches,  preparations  are  made  by 
the  erection  of  an  altar  in  the  house  of  the  parents  of 
the  child,  upon  which  is  placed  an  image  of  the  Buddha, 
both  the  altar  and  the  room  in  which  it  stands  being- 
decorated  with  candles  and  such  ornaments  as  the 
family  can  afford.  Around  the  altar  are  disposed 
shears,  razors,  l)owls  of  holy  water,  a conch  shell  and 
other  paraphernalia  of  the  ceremony,  arranged  in  a 
circle,  and  a stand  is  placed  near  by  on  Avhich  small 
portions  of  food  are  disposed  in  packets  and  on  plates 
fashioned  from  banana-leaves  for  the  refection  of  the 
tutelary  deities  of  the  house  and  family.  A sacred 
thread  is  passed  all  round  the  house  under  the  eaves, 
the  ends  of  which,  passing  into  the  house  are  placed 
convenient  to  the  hands  of  the  monks  who  shall  attend 
the  ceremony  and  whose  homilies,  travelling  along  the 
cord,  shall  keep  all  evil  sjiirits  from  interfering  with 
the  proceedings.  The  ancestors  of  the  child  are  not 
foi’gotten,  for  the  urns  containing  the  ashes  of  these  are 
taken  down  from  the  shelf  on  which  they  usually  stand 
and  are  arranged  on  a small  altar,  in  which  situation 
they  attract  the  attention  and  genuflexions  of  their 
living  descendants,  and  shed  a benign  influence  on  the 
proceedings. 

Outside  the  house  a scaffolding  is  raised,  on  the  top 
of  which  is  a square  x^latform  shaded  by  a canopy 
supported  on  four  frail  posts  inclining  slightly  inwards 


? ' 


Photo  : Antonio. 

CHILI)  DRESSED  FOR  THE  “ TOR-KXOT  CETTIXO”  CEREMOXY. 


1 


I 

i 

J 

1 


BRAHMAN  CEREMONIES  519 


and  draped  with  curtains  o£  muslin.  A tapering 
pagoda-shaped  structure  stands  on  the  platform  con- 
taining more  food  on  hanana-leaf  plates,  this  to 
propitiate  a certain  deity  known  as  Ketu,  the  dispenser 
of  long  life  and  other  mundane  blessings.  On  the 
afternoon  of  the  day  but  one  before  the  actual  hair- 
cutting, the  friends  of  the  family  visit  the  house,  eacli 
bringing  a present  which  is  deposited  on  a talkie  before 
the  altar.  The  monks  arrive  later,  heralded  by  the 
beating  of  gongs,  and  seating  themselves  in  a row  on  a 
raised  dais,  are  regaled  with  tea  and  sweetmeats.  Aftei 
an  interval  the  child  appears  clothed  in  the  fines i; 
apparel  procurable  and  decked  with  the  family  jewels, 
and  advances  under  the  guidance  of  two  or  more 
Brahman  priests,  if  sucli  are  available,  who  scatter  rice, 
blow  concli  shells  and  beat  drums,  and  makes  obeisance 
before  the  monks,  one  of  whom  attaches  the  sacred 
thread  to  the  child’s  topknot.  A recital  of  the  Buddhist 
Commandments  follows  with  other  formulas  in  which 
the  onlookers  join,  after  which  the  child  retires,  the 
band  strikes  up,  tea,  food,  cigars,  and  betel  are  handed 
round  and  the  party  gives  itself  up  to  merrymaking. 
The  next  day  is  passed  in  listening  to  the  recitations  of 
monks  and  the  prayers  and  exercises  of  Brahmans, 
punctuated  l)y  the  T)eating  of  gongs  and  followed  hy 
music  and  theatrical  performances. 

Before  the  davm  of  the  third  day  the  monks  return 
cpiietly  to  the  house  and  a meal  is  eaten.  Silence  is 
preserved  in  order  to  deceive  any  evil  spirits  who  may 
be  about  into  the  belief  that  no  important  rite  is  in 
progress.  The  cliild,  with  head  clean  shaved  except 
for  the  topknot,  appears  with  the  sunrise  and  as  the 
psychological  moment  approaches  the  topknot  is 
untwisted  and  divided  into  three  parts,  the  most 
honoured  guest  and  two  aged  relatives  take  each 
a part  in  their  hand,  and,  exactly  at  the  right  instant, 


520 


SIAM 


cut  it  off  amid  a sudden  overwhelming  burst  of  drum- 
beating and  music.  Thereafter  a barber  finishes  the 
business  professionally,  leaving  the  child  entirely  bald. 
The  food  of  Ketu  is  then  removed  from  the  raised 
platform  outside  and  the  child  ascends  and  sits  down 
upon  the  vacant  spot  while,  one  by  one,  the  monks, 
and  after  them  the  friends,  climb  up  and  pour  holy 
water  from  a shell  upon  the  bald  head  until  child, 
platform  and  all  are  wet  through.  A change  of  clothes 
is  quickly  made  and  the  hero  of  the  moment,  clad  now 
in  the  finest  possible  garments,  goes  through  the 
ceremony  of  feeding  the  monks,  resen  ting  rice,  fish 
and  fruit  to  each  in  turn.  This  part  of  the  observance 
is  accompanied  by  much  music  and,  when  it  is  at 
length  over,  is  followed  by  final  recitations  and  chantings 
of  holy  words  and  by  a sermon. 

Such,  in  brief,  is  the  Chulakantamangala  or  col- 
loquially Kan  Tat  Chuk,  the  Tonsure  ceremony, 
presenting  as  modernl}^  observed,  a bewildering  con- 
fusion of  Buddhism,  Brahmanism  and  elementary 
iVnimism.  The  elaboration  of  the  ceremony  varies  of 
course  with  the  wealth  and  jjosition  of  the  family 
concerned.  The  humble  peasant  decorates  his  house 
with  a wisp  or  two  of  white  and  red  cloth,  dresses  his 
child  in  clothes  and  jewels  for  the  most  part  borrowed, 
and  considers  himself  fortunate  if  he  can  find  the 
wherewithal  to  feed  two  or  three  monks  and  to  entertain 
his  friends.  The  wealthy  Bangkok  citizen  drapes  his 
rooms  with  lace  curtains  and  velvet,  covers  the  floor 
with  thick -piled  carpets  and  illuminates  with  a hundred 
electric  lamps  the  altars  of  the  Buddha  and  of  his 
ancestors  and  tlie  food  spread  for  his  Penates.  The 
to]:>knot  cutting  of  a Royal  child  is  an  occasion  for 
public  holiday  and  rejoicing  ; magnificent  buildings 
are  specially  erected  for  the  purpose  ; the  raised  plat- 
form of  the  water-pouring  ceremony  assumes  the 


BRAHMAN  CEREMONIES  521 


proportions  and  appearance  of  a hill  composed  of  rocks 
with  conventional  trees  and  seven-tiered  umbrellas 
planted  upon  it,  and  conceals  within  its  interior  all 
sorts  of  ingenious  mechanism  for  pouring  or  squirting 
the  holy  water  upon  the  devoted  head  ; hundreds  of 
monks  and  thousands  of  the  poor  are  fed  at  intervals 
through  each  day  ; bands  of  musicians  are  established 
here  and  there  and  keep  the  air  continually  vibrating 
with  the  sound  of  their  powerful  instruments  ; theatrical 
representations  and  displays  of  fireworks  occupy  the 
nights  and  each  stage  of  the  ceremony  is  witnessed  by 
dense  crowds  of  sightseers. 

Cremation. — The  Siamese  ceremony  of  cremation  has 
been  dealt  with  in  almost  sufficient  detail  in  Part  II. 
A few  Siamese  consider  that  the  disposal  of  the  dead 
is  not  a religious  matter  at  all  and  that  cremation  is 
practised  by  them  merely  because  it  is  an  ancient 
custom  which  appeals  to  them  on  account  of  its  cleanly 
and  sanitary  aspects.  It  is  difficult  to  understand, 
however,  how  or  why  there  should  be-  any  attempt 
to  divorce  this  particular  ceremony  from  religion  since 
it  is  conducted  in  accordance  with  ancient  Brahman 
rites,  while  Buddhist  monks  take  prominent  ]iart  in 
the  matter.  Possibly  the  contention  is  based  upon  the 
fact  that  this  particular  method  of  disposing  of  the 
dead  is  not  anywhere  specially  inculcated  by  Buddhism. 
This  is  true,  for  the  Burmese,  who  are  as  good 
Buddhists  as  the  Siamese  (some  say  better),  usually 
Imry  their  dead,  but  there  is  no  doubt  at  all  that  in 
the  mind  of  the  average  Siamese,  cremation  is  quite  as 
closely  connected  with  tlie  compound  of  Buddhism  and 
Brahmanism  which  represents  his  religion  as  are  any 
of  the  other  ceremonies  througli  which  a man  passes 
during  his  earthly  career. 


522 


SIAM 


Soothsayers 

In  Bangkok  there  reside  a number  of  Brahmans  called 
Hon,  whose  principal  duty  it  is  to  act  as  astrologers 
and  to  conduct  the  numerous  Brahmanic  ceremonies 
which  are  observed  at  the  Court  and  by  the  public 
generally.  These  Brahmans  have  a temple  of  their 
own  wheie  they  carefidly  note  all  omens  which  may 
present  themselves,  and  watch  the  courses  of  the  stars, 
gathering  information  concerning  coming  ev^ents  with 
a view  to  guiding  the  King  and  the  State  along  paths 
of  safety  to  national  happiness  and  wellbeing.  No 
important  undertaking  is  ever  embarked  upon  and  no 
public  ceremony  is  allowed  to  take  place  until  the 
Brahmans  have  duly  considered  the  signs  and  omens 
bearing  upon  the  matter  and  have  announced  the  most 
auspicious  da^y  hour  and  minute  for  a beginning  to 
be  made.  Theirs  is  the  responsibility  for  the  success- 
ful conduct  of  the  numerous  great  public  festivals  and 
ceremonies  accompanied  by  Brahmanic  rites,  which 
are  held  at  different  times  of  the  year  to  ensure  the 
public  loyalty  to  the  Throne,  freedom  from  epidemics 
of  disease,  the  securing  of  seasonable  weather  and  the 
consequent  realization  of  good  crops,  and  it  is  to  them 
that  the  chief  blame  attaches  for  aipy  serious  catastrophe 
which  may  overtake  the  countiy. 

The  Bongkran  festival  marks  the  beginning  of  the 
new  year  according  to  the  Maha  Sahara j,  the  Era 
which  started  in  78  a.d.  A few  days,  sometimes  three 
and  sometimes  four,  before  the  new  year’s  day,  which 
occurs  about  the  middle  of  April,  Songkran,  a mani- 
festation of  Phra  In  (Indra),  the  Teicada  king  of  one 
of  the  lower  heavens  is  supposed  to  descend  to  earth. 
The  Brahmans  are  on  the  watch  and  are  able  to  discern 
from  signs  in  the  heavens  considered  in  conjunction 


BRAHMAN  FESTIVALS  523 


with  other  natural  phenomena,  the  conditions  under 
which  he  makes  his  advent  and  the  significance  of 
those  conditions  as  affecting  the  public  weal  during 
the  coming  year.  The  Tewada  King  may  arrive  bearing 
warlike  arms,  a prognostication  of  troublous  times,  or 
he  may  carry  a torch  meaning  fire,  or  he  brings 
a water-pot,  thereby  implying  plentiful  rain  and  good 
harvests,  or  a lantern  prophesying  a severe  hot  season. 
Perhaps  he  carries  nothing  but  a Avand,  from  which 
a prospect  of  profound  peace  is  to  be  inferred.  The 
means  of  his  locomotion  are  also  of  deep  import.  If 
he  rides  upon  a dragon  it  is  a sign  of  rain,  if 

upon  a Khrut  bird  Avinds  Avill  be  high ; a coav  or 
buffalo  as  steed  presages  agricultural  prosper! t3%  AAdiile 
should  he  arriA^e  on  foot  much  heat  is  to  be  expected. 
The  Brahmans  carefully  Avork  out  the  moment  of  the 
arrival  and  the  nature  and  significance  of  the  equi])- 
ment,  and  the  facts  are  publicl}^  announced  throughout 
the  country  just  before  the  firing  of  a gun  at  the  capital 
announces  that  the  celestial  being  is  actually  present. 
Thereupon  in  every  part  of  the  land  there  is  a Augorous 
out-pouring  of  AA^ater  upon  the  ground,  that  libation  to 
the  earth  in  spring  Avhich  is  prol^ably  one  of  the 
oldest  and  most  Avidely  practised  ceremonies  of  pro- 
pitiation in  the  AA^orld.  Not  content  Avith  AA^atering  their 
mother  Earth  the  people  then  proceed  to  pay  a like 
honour  to  everything  Avhich  they  consider  AA^orthy  of 
reA^erence,  such  as  the  images  of  the  Buddha,  their 
parents  and  teachers  and  the  monks  generally,  and,  by 
a chain  of  reasoning  easy  to  folio av,  all  whom  they 
Avish  to  treat  AAuth  politeness.  The  holy  images  are 
taken  from  the  Wat  and  placed  in  coiiA^enient  position 
for  the  ceremony  and  recei\^e  a copious  AA-atering  at  the 
hands  of  the  young  men  and  unmarried  AA-omen,  the 
latter  especially,  after  Avhich  bottles  of  scent  and  gay 
liandkerchiefs  are  presented  to  the  monks  as  offerings 


524 


SIAM 


symbolical  of  the  ceremony.  The  elders  are  then  visited 
and  presented  with  similar  offerings,  water  is  poured  upon 
them,  they  return  the  compliment  of  their  visitors  and 
gradually  the  whole  community  is  engaged  in  a friendly 
<*ombat  of  water-throwing,  syringes,  bowls,  basins  and 
any  handy  utensil  being  freely  used  until  everybody  is 
quite  Avet  through.  In  the  royal  palace  the  ceremony  is 
observed  Avith  prayer,  and  Avater  AAdiich  has  been  blest  and 
made  holy  is  poured  over  the  King  and  members  of  the 
royal  family.  At  the  appointed  time  the  reascent  to 
heaven  of  the  Songkran  Tewada  is  announced  by  gun- 
fire, from  Avhich  moment  the  celebrations  are  at  an  end 
and  the  iieAV  year  is  considered  to  have  fairly  begun. 

Teu  Nam.  On  the  3rd  day  of  the  Avaxing  moon  of 
the  third  month,  i.e.  about  the  15th  March,  and  again  on 
the  13th  day  of  the  AA^axing  moon  of  the  tenth  month, 
or  about  the  5th  October,  the  interesting  ceremony 
knoAvn  as  Teu  Nam  or  ‘ The  Holding  of  the  Water  ’ 
is  observed  at  the  capital  and  in  every  provincial  town. 
On  these  occasion  the  princes,  nobility  and  officials 
assemble  and  reneAv  the  Oath  of  Allegiance  to  the  Crown 
l:>y  drinking  a small  quantity  of  Avater  Avhich  has  been 
charmed  by  the  spells  and  magic  of  the  Court  Brahmans, 
and  this  act  of  drinking  is  supposed  to  entail  upon 
persons  guilty  of  future  disloyalty,  the  displeasure  of 
the  Gods  and  a violent  and  painful  death.  At  the 
capital  the  ceremony  is  observed  in  the  presence  of 
His  Majesty  in  the  principal  temple  adjoining  the 
Palace.  Within  the  precincts  of  the  temple  are  gathered 
together  the  first  princes  and  nobles  and  the  leading 
officials  of  the  country,  Avhile  beyond  upon  the  Avide 
laAvns  of  the  outer  palace  enclosure,  detachments  of 
cavalry,  artillery  and  marines,  battalions  of  infantry 
and  the  Avhite  elephants  and  royal  chargers  are  draA\m 
up  in  the  panoi^ly  of  glittering  arms,  accoutrements 
and  caparisons.  To  the  sound  of  drums  and  AAdth  a 


BRAHMAN  FESTIVALS  525 


fanfare  of  the  royal  trumpets,  the  King  appears  from 
the  inner  palace,  seated  upon  a gilded  throne  carried 
shoulder  high.  A thousand  bayonets  flash  to  the  royal 
salute,  guns  thunder  and  the  massed  bands  bray  out 
the  national  anthem  as  His  Majesty  is  borne  along  the 
front  of  the  troops  and  in  through  the  gate  of  the 
temple  precincts.  Arrived  within  the  Bot  of  the  Wat, 
the  King  seats  himself  and  watc*hes  the  whole  of  his 
Court  and  the  Officers  of  every  Government  Department 
walk  in  two  by  two,  take  from  a table  a small  cup  of  the 
holy  water,  touch  it  with  their  lips  and  retire  through 
a further  door  to  the  outer  air.  The  ceremony  lasts  the 
greater  part  of  the  day.  In  the  provinces  similar  rites 
are  enacted  on  the  same  day  under  the  superintendence 
of  the  Official  Head  of  the  locality  and  thus  the  whole 
country  binds  itself  twice  a year  to  the  loyal  observance 
of  the  King’s  commands.  The  Ten  Kam  ceremony  is 
of  great  anticjuity  and  was  observed  at  all  the  Courts  of 
Further  India  in  the  days  when  there  were  maii}^  kings 
in  the  land.  Failure  on  the  part  of  any  high  official 
about  the  Court  to  attend  at  the  function  was  formerly 
considered  tantamount  to  an  admission  of  disloyalty, 
while  a hiccough  at  the  critical  moment,  or  other  appear- 
ance of  difficulty  in  swallowing  the  water,  Avas  deemed 
such  clear  evidence  of  disaffection  as  to  justify  the 
immediate  execution  of  the  unfortunate  bungler. 

Loi  Khrathong.  Shortly  before  the  That  Khraihin 
ceremonies  begin  in  or  about  October,  and  again  im- 
mediately after  the  celebration  of  the  anniversary  of  the 
Coronation  the  rites  of  the  Loi  Khrathong  are  conducted 
at  Bangkok.  This  is  a purely  Bralmian  ceremony  AAdiich 
is  said  to  have  been  adopted  as  a national  obseiwance 
at  the  instigation  of  the  beautiful  daughter  of  a 
Brahman  astrologer,  a much  faA^oured  lady  at  the  Court 
of  a monarch  of  long  ago.  The  ceremony  consists  of  the 
floating  of  baskets  of  fruit,  floAA'ers,  betel  and  similar 


526 


SIAM 


offerings,  down  tlie  river  Menam  Chao  Phaya  for  the 
purpose  of  propitiating  the  spirit  of  the  river.  The 
rites  are  observed  at  night  and,  the  baskets  being 
decorated  with  little  lamps  and  incense  sticks,  the  whole 
surface  of  the  river  is  brightly  illuminated  with  twinkling 
dancing  lights  as  though  the  stars  had  fallen  from  the 
firmament  upon  the  water.  The  ladies  of  the  palace 
take  an  active  part  in  the  proceedings  and  vie  with 
each  other  in  the  elaboration  of  their  baskets  which  take 
the  form  of  ships,  lotus-flowers,  birds,  dragons  and 
innumerable  other  objects.  A brilliant  display  of  fire- 
works adds  to  the  beauty  of  the  scene. 

The  White  Elephant.  The  religious  cult  of  the  White 
Elephant,  formerly  common  to  all  the  countries  of 
Further  India  but  now  almost  entirely  confined  to  Siam, 
is  of  Brahman  origin.  The  White  Elephant  was  already 
an  object  of  high  veneration  before  the  rise  of  Buddhism, 
as  witness  the  fact  that  the  earliest  Buddhists,  just 
emerging  from  Brahmanism  and  with  all  their  old 
legends  and  beliefs  clinging  about  them,  chose  the  body 
of  this  animal  as  one  of  the  Avatars  of  the  Buddha  before 
he  took  on  his  final  human  shape.  Witness  also  the 
inclusion  of  the  white  elephant  among  the  seven 
characteristic  adjuncts  of  a Maha  Chakra warti  Raja,  or 
‘ Universal  Monarch,’  mythical  personage  of  far  pre- 
Buddhist  times.  With  a view  to  establishing  their  identity 
as  possible  ‘ Universal  monarchs  ’ it  was  at  one  time 
the  desire  of  all  the  kings  of  Further  India  to  possess 
as  many  White  Elephants  as  they  could,  and  the  animals 
were  frequently  the  cause  of  Avars  in  ancient  days.  They 
were  maintained  at  the  Court  in  the  utmost  splendour, 
certain  revenues  being  set  apart  for  their  especial  use  ; 
they  were  attended  by  troops  of  servants,  their  caparisons 
Avere  of  velvet  and  gold,  choirs  Avere  appointed  to  sing 
to  them  and  it  is  said  that  they  Avere  even  consulted  on 
matters  of  state.  Althougli  noAv  fallen  greatly  from 


WHITE  ELEPHANTS 


527 


their  former  proud  estate,  several  white  elephants  are 
still  kept  at  the  Court  of  Bangkok  where  they  are 
housed  near  the  palace,  given  titles  of  nobility  and 
attended  upon  by  a retinue  of  servants.  All  matters 
connected  with  them  are  peculiarly  the  province  of  the 
Court  Brahmans,  who  conduct  the  ceremonies  attending 
their  capture,  installation  and  education,  who  minister 
to  them  when  they  are  ill,  who  conduct  periodical 
religious  services  in  their  presence  and  for  their  behoof, 
and  to  whom  falls  the  duty  of  cremating  them  when 
they  are  dead.  In  the  days  before  the  fall  of  Burma,  it 
was  not  uncommon  for  Brahmans  to  make  pilgrimage 
to  Mandalay  from  Bangkok  in  order  to  make  reverence 
to  the  white  elephant  kept  there  by  the  King. 

Ii  may  be  noted  here  that  the  term  ‘ White  Elephant  ’ 
is  not  a true  translation  of  the  Siamese,  which  is  Chang 
Phenah^  or  ‘Albino  Elephant.’  The  animals  are  not 
white  but  at  best  a dirty  grey  colour,  but  they  have  the 
distinctive  marks  of  the  Albino,  which  include  light- 
coloured  iris  of  the  eye,  white  toe-nails,  wdiite  or  reddish 
body  hairs  and  pink  skin  at  the  end  of  the  trunk,  round 
the  mouth  and  on  parts  of  the  under  side  of  the  body.i 

Rice-CxRowino  Ceremonies  : the  Swing  Eestival 

Every  step  in  the  process  of  rice  cultivation  demands, 
in  common  with  most  of  the  ordinary  occurrences  of 
Siamese  life,  the  observance  of  more  or  less  elaborate 
religious  ceremonial,  for  no  one  living  in  a country 
where  the  innumerable  spirits  of  earth,  air  and  water 
take  such  a lively  interest  in  the  affairs  of  mankind, 
individually  and  in  the  mass  as  they  do  in  Siam,  would 
lie  thought  at  all  wise  in  undertaking  any  matter  as 
to  the  issue  of  which  he  might  be  anxious  without  due 
propitiation  made  beforehand.  Tliese  ceremonies  are 
chiefly  pure  animism  but  there  are  some  which  have 


528 


SIAM 


clearly  been  sanctified  by  Brahmanic  approval  and  which 
are  now  practised  in  Siam  as  natural  public  ceremonies 
directly  concerning  the  entire  community  and  regarded 
as  of  the  utmost  importance  in  determining  the  nature 
of  the  harvest. 

The  first  of  these  is  the  Loh  Chin  Gha,  or  ‘ Pulling  the 
Swing  ’ fete  which  occurs  on  the  seventh  and  ninth  of 
the  second  month  of  the  old  Siamese  calendar,  dates 
falling  between  the  latter  part  of  December  and  the 
middle  of  January.  It  apparently  has  for  its  object  the 
giving  of  thanks  for  the  harvest  which  has  just  been 
reaped,  and  the  securing  of  an  adequate  rainfall  and 
general  agricultural  prosperity  during  the  coming 
season.  The  exact  -meaning  of  the  rites  performed  is, 
however,  somewhat  doubtful,  the  Brahmans,  who 
conduct  them,  having  lost  their  records  and  forgotten 
much  of  the  legend  surrounding  the  matter.  The 
fact  that  it  is  a Brahman  ceremony,  and  that  Brahman 
deities  are  represented  in  it  is,  however,  sufficient 
evidence  of  its  Indian  origin  though  some  Avriters  aaJio 
have  described  it  assert  that  it  came  originally  from 
China,  one  author  going  so  far  as  to  describe  the 
Swing,  an  erection  consisting  of  two  enormous  teak 
pillars  about  a hundred  feet  high  with  an  ornamental 
cross-bar  on  top,  as  an  ‘ ancient  Chinese  monument.’ 

The  ceremony  is  conducted  as  folloAvs.  Shortly 
l)efore  the  appointed  date,  a nobleman  of  the  Court, 
a different  person  each  year,  but  ahvays  a Phaya  Pan 
Thong  or  noble  of  the  ‘ Golden  Bowl’  rank  is  appointed 
by  the  King  to  fill  the  chief  role,  that  of  the  God  Phra 
In  (Indra),  Sovereign  of  the  lower  (Tewa)  Heaven  and  of 
the  Tewadas  who  dAvell  therein  Phra  In  ’ plays  many 
parts  in  Siamese  mythology).  This  nobleman  at  once 
begins  to  take  lessons  in  godlike  deportment  from  the 
Brahman  professors  of  the  Court.  A feA\"  days  later  the 
open  square  in  \Adiich  the  great  SAving  stands  is 


SAO  CHIXG  CHA.  Photo  \ Lem 

(The  vScene  of  the  Annual  Swinging  Ceremony.) 


< 


THE  SAAHNG  FESTIVAL 


521) 


prepared.  Two  small  thatched  huts  are  built,  one 
opposite  the  SAving  and  the  other  at  the  eastern  entrance 
of  the  square,  a number  of  sen  try  box-like  structures 
are  placed  at  intervals  near  them,  and  the  streets  AAdiich 
open  upon  the  square  are  flanked  by  light  bamboo 
trellis-AA^ork  screens,  placed  one  on  each  side  of  the 
road-AA^ay  at  right  angles  to  it  to  prevent  eAul  spirits 
from  coming  to  disturb  the  proceedings.  Finally,  a 
seat  is  suspended  from  the  cross-bar  of  the  SAving  by 
six  strong  ropes  of  rattan,  at  a height  of  about  fifteen 
feet  from  the  ground.  The  seat  is  some  six  feet  long 
by  one  broad,  the  greatest  length  at  right  angle  to  the 
lofty  cross-bar,  an  extra  rope  hangs  from  the  seat,  by 
pulling  on  AAdiich  from  beloAV  the  SAving  is  got  into 
motion,  and  a long  bamboo  is  planted  in  the  ground 
at  a short  distance  on  the  Avest  side  of  the  SAAung  Avith 
a small  bag  of  money  fastened  to  the  toj).  On  the 
appointed  day  the  Aidiole  cit}^  is  alive  at  an  early  hour, 
the  iieople  flocking  in  thousands  to  the  square  or  taking 
positions  in  the  main  streets  leading  to  it.  Before  the 
sun  has  more  than  topped  the  city  AA^alls,  Phra  In 
emerges  from  a temple  in  AAdiich  he  is  supposed  to  have 
just  alighted  on  descending  from  the  skies,  and 
proceeds  through  the  toAAUi,  Avith  a large  number  of 
attendant  sprites.  After  a circuitous  journey  made 
apxjarently  for  spectacular  effect,  the  procession 
debouches  upon  the  square  by  its  eastern  entrance. 

Here  the  Visitor  is  receii^ed  by  the  Brahmans  Avith 
approiiriate  offerings  and  praj^ers,  and  is  installed  in 
the  thatched  hut  near  the  entrance,  his  folloAvers 
croAvding  into  the  square.  After  a short  interval  the 
deity  is  conducted  to  the  small  hut  facing  the  swing 
AAdiere  he  seats  himself  Avith  tAvo  Brahmans  on  each  side 
of  him  and  crosses  one  foot  upon  his  knee.  This  is 
a signal  for  the  invasion  of  the  square  by  the  croAvd, 
AAdiich  closes  in,  SAvaying  and  laughing,  and  at  once 

2 L 


530 


SIAM 


becomes  tightly  wedged  round  the  swing  and  fills  the 
entire  space.  Four  celestial  individuals  with  the  snake 
or  ‘ Nak  ’ heads  on  their  caps  to  proclaim  their 
connection  with  Phaya  Nak,  king  of  Nagas,  the  giver  of 
rain,  are  hoisted  up  on  to  the  swing.  The  Brahmans 
enter  the  sentry-boxes  and  intone  prayers,  and  the 
swingers  pulling  on  the  ropes,  begin  to  move  slowly  to 
and  fro.  The  momentum  increases  gradually,  the 
swingers  perform  grotesque  posturing  dances  and  the 
crowd  yells  encouragement  from  below.  At  last  the 
momentum  brings  the  swing  close  to  the  bamboo  with 
the  bag  of  coins,  and  one  of  the  swingers  leaning  far 
out  and  watching  his  opportunity,  makes  a grab  with 
his  mouth  and  secures  the  bag  in  his  teeth.  If  this 
feat  is  successful  at  the  first  attempt  a roar  of  applause 
ascending  announces  the  satisfaction  of  the  multitude, 
while  failure  to  secure  the  bag  is  greeted  with  derisive 
shouts  and  signs  of  discontent.  Other  coins  are  placed 
on  the  pole  and  the  operation  is  twice  repeated,  after 
which  Phra  In  rises,  receives  the  prayers  of  the 
Brahmans  and  departs  with  his  satellites  the  way  he 
came,  so  edified,  apparently,  by  the  manner  in  which 
the  swinging  has  been  conducted  that  he  cannot  but 
promise  the  people  a pros^Derous  year.  The  ceremony  is 
re])eated  on  the  next  day  but  one,  with  the  same 
ol3servance,  and  is  then  over  for  the  year. 

Though  they  are  unable  to  explain  much  of  their 
significance,  the  Brahmans  are  well  up  in  the  details 
which  it  is  essential  to  observe  in  the  conduct  of  the 
ceremony,  and  they  know  that  not  to  observe  them,  or 
to  carry  them  out  in  too  perfunctory  a manner,  is  to 
court  disaster  during  the  coming  season.  Thus,  should 
the  swing  work  crookedly,  or  one  of  the  sAvingers  fall 
from  it,  or  if  the  taking  of  the  coins  is  bungled,  the 
omen  is  consideied  bad  Avhile  if  the  impersonator  of  the 
presiding  deity  chances  to  loAver  his  raised  foot  to  the 


THE  SWING  FESTIVAI 


531 


ground  during  the  swinging,  the  worst  is  confidently 
expected.  In  ancient  days  the  ceremony  was  attended 
with  much  roughness,  the  followers  of  the  heavenly 
monarch  were  allowed  absolute  licence  during  the 
processions,  they  levied  contributions  in  money  and 
kind  from  all  they  met  en  route,  and  seldom  arrived  at 
the  swing  without  bloody  coxcombs,  hardly  in  con- 
sonance with  the  pure  white  dress  and  tapering 
head-gear  which  they  wear  to  denote  their  angelic 
nature.  It  is  said,  moreover,  that  if  one  of  the  swingers 
fell  from  his  iiercli  or  otherwise  acquitted  himself  in 
a too  slovenly  manner,  he  was  liable  to  be  attacked  and 
beaten  to  death,  while  if  their  leader  forgot  his  part, 
placing  both  feet  on  the  ground  simultaneously  or 
otherwise  conducting  himself  in  an  ungodlike  way,  the 
Brahmans  fell  uj^on  him,  stole  his  fine  clothes  and 
hounded  him  ignominiously  from  the  scene.  Nowadays, 
however,  the  ceremony,  watched  and  controlled  by 
a strong  body  of  disciplined  police,  is  a very  quiet  and 
well-conducted  affair. 

The  ancient  Bek  Na  or  ‘ First  Ploughing  ’ ceremony 
takes  place  annually  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy 
season,  early  in  the  sixth  Siamese  month,  that  is  during 
the  first  half  of  May.  It  originally  consisted  of  the 
ploughing  of  a piece  of  land  by  the  King  in  person, 
Avho  thus  inaugurated  the  agricultural  operations  of 
the  year  with  fitting  eclat,  propitiated  the  various 
sx)irits  most  interested  in  farming  and  received  from 
them  in  return,  provided  they  were  in  the  right 
humour,  certain  signs  from  which  tlie  nature  of  the 
forthcoming  harvest  could  be  deduced.  The  Bek  Na 
is  probably  one  of  the  oldest  religious  ceremonies 
existent.  Chinese  history  states  that  in  ancient  days 
it  was  the  custom  for  the  Emperor  himself  to  plough, 
a particular  field  with  his  own  hand  at  the  beginning 
of  the  wet  season,  the  rice  resulting  from  which 


532 


SIAM 


operation  was  offered  up  to  certain  spirits,  this 
ceremony  having  been  instituted  at  the  Court  of  China 
4700  years  ago.  The  ploughing  festival  at  Kapilawat, 
the  capital  of  Raja  Suddhodana  the  father  of  Sithat, 
afterwards  the  Buddha,  is  made  the  scene  of  one  of 
the  best-known  miracles  of  the  infancy  of  the  Teacher, 
namely  the  arrest  of  the  shadow  of  the  rose-apple  tree 
which  shaded  the  Royal  Infant  when  he  was  taken  out 
to  watch  his  father  and  the  nobles  turning  the  first  sods 
of  the  year.  The  Jesuit  Fathers  have  placed  it  ou 
record  that  the  kings  of  Tonquin  and  Cochin-China 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  took  an  active  part  in  an 
annual  ploughing  ceremony  held  at  their  capitals. 
Shway  Yoe  hi  The . Burman  descrihes  the  j)erformance 
of  King  Miodon  Min  in  the  Let  Twin  Mingala 
ceremony,  the  Burmese  equivalent  for  Rek  Na,  which 
was  observed  every  year  at  Mandalay  until  the  accession 
of  King  Thibaw,  wdio,  much  to  the  disgust  of  his 
people,  allowed  it  to  fall  into  abeyance.  None  of  these, 
however,  make  any  clear  statement  as  to  the  origin 
of  the  ceremony,  but  De  La  Loubere  in  his  Royaume  de 
Siam  supposes  that  it  (which  he  apparently  cou founds 
with  the  Swinging  Ceremony,  as  does  Sir  John 
Bowring  140  years  later)  was  introduced  into  Siam 
from  China  where  it  was  invented  to  enhance  the 
dignity  of  agricultural  labour.  In  support  of  this 
theory,  there  is  little  or  no  evidence,  whereas  from  the 
prominent  part  taken  in  the  matter  by  the  Court 
Brahmans  and  from  the  nature  of  almost  every  detail 
of  the  ceremony  there  is  reason  to  believe  that,  so  far 
as  Siam  and  Burma  at  least  are  concerned,  it  was 
originally  introduced  from  India.  It  is  possible  that 
the  custom,  which  is  based  on  the  oldest  pre-Brahman 
Shamanistic  superstitions,  is,  in  one  form  or  another, 
as  old  as  the  art  of  cultivating  rice  and,  being  found 
by  the  Brahmans  already  long  established,  was  adojDted 


THE  SWING  FESTIVAI 


533 


by  them,  and  that  the  rites  have  been  practised  in 
India,  China  and  Further  India  with  more  or  less 
similarity  of  form  ever  since  the  remote  date  when 
rice  was  first  grown  in  these  parts  of  the  world. 

Judging  by  the  narratives  of  ancient  travellers,  the 
ceremony  as  observed  in  Siam  at  the  present  day  has 
changed  very  little  during  the  last  three  or  four 
hundred  years.  Actual  participation  by  the  king 
liimself  is  little  more  than  a myth,  one  or  other  of  the 
high  court  officials  having  from  time  immemorial,  been 
appointed  to  represent  Majesty  for  the  occasion.  This 
officer  is  now  invariably  His  Majesty’s  Minister  for 
Agriculture  and,  as  any  failure  of  the  crops  is  attri- 
buted to  some  mismanagement  of  the  ceremony,  the 
unfortunate  Minister  is  thus  effectively  saddled  with 
the  responsibility  not  only  for  the  material  condition 
of  agriculture  in  the  country  Imt  also  for  any 
capricious  or  malevolent  behaviour  on  the  part  of  all 
or  any  of  the  spirits  of  earth,  air  or  water.  For  some 
years  past  the  ceremony  was  observed  in  a most 
perfunctor}^  manner  and,  passing  almost  without  notice 
of  any  kind,  seemed  about  to  fall  into  complete  abeyance. 
Recently,  liowever,  owing  to  an  awakening  of  Royal 
interest  in  the  matter,  it  has  experienced  a revival  and 
now  takes  place  in  the  presence  of  the  King  on  a field 
reserved  for  the  purpose  adjoining  tlie  Royal  park 
outside  the  city.  Furthermore,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  rural  officials,  the  ceremony  is  now  conducted  at 
the  more  important  provincial  centres  at  the  same  time 
as  at  Bangkok,  the  principal  rule  being  filled  by  an 
officer  especially  selected  for  the  honour  by  tlie  King. 
The  propitious  day,  liour,  minute  and  second  having 
been  duly  announced  by  the  Bralinians,  the  field  of 
operations  is  made  ready.  The  ground  is  carefully 
cleared  of  all  grass  and  weeds,  three  bamboos  are 
planted  upright  in  a line  pointing  east  and  west  and 


534 


SIAM 


the  co]-ners  of  the  field  are  marked  off  with  slight  frames 
of  bamboo  trellis-work,  those  barriers  well-known  to 
be  impassable  by  e^dl  spirits.  A lofty  arch,  also  of 
bamboo,  called  the  ‘Jungle  Gate,’  is  erected  near  one 
corner  of  the  ground  and  near  it  is  a thatch-roofed 
shed  in  which  is  placed  an  altar  supporting  bronze 
effigies  of  Shiva,  Ganesh,  Lakshmi  and  other  Brahman 
deities.  To  this  altar  is  fastened  a white  cord  which 
passes  out  of  the  shed  and  across  the  field  in  various 
directions,  connecting  up  with  the  ‘ Jungle  Gate,’  the 
corner  trellis-work  screens  and  the  bamboo  poles.  The 
night  l)efore  the  ceremony  is  passed  by  the  Brahmans 
at  the  foot  of  this  altar  in  prayer  and  invocation,  the 
results  of  which,  passing  along  the  white  cord,  charge 
the  whole  field  with  a current  of  sanctity  of  such 
strength  as  must  infallibly  demoralise  any  malevolent 
s])irit  attempting  to  trespass  upon  it.  At  the  side  of 
the  field  opposite  the  ‘ Jungle  Gate  ’ stands  the 
decorated  ro}'al  box,  surrounded  by  seats  for  the 
nobility  and  having  near  it  a pavilion  for  the  ladies 
of  the  Court. 

At  an  early  hour  of  the  day  fixed,  the  populace, 
dressed  in  its  best,  begins  to  collect  about  the  sacred 
spot,  where  solaced  by  the  ice-creams  and  fruit  of 
itinerant  Chinese  vendors,  it  settles  down  to  a lengthy 
enjoyment  of  the  pleasures  of  anticipation  which  a 
Siamese  audience  enjoys  almost  as  keenly  as  it  does 
those  of  realisation  and  which  it  would  not  miss  on  any 
account.  The  waving,  many-hued  scarves  and  gay 
paiiuiKjs  worn  by  both  sexes  alike,  lend  colour  to  the 
brown-skinned,  black-haired  crowd,  and  in  the  morning 
sunshine  make  the  scene  a brilliant  one.  Soon  a 
detachment  of  the  Royal  body-guard  marches  up 
preceded  by  its  band,  and  amid  martial  shouting  of 
orders,  takes  position  on  the  edge  of  the  field.  Later, 
the  strains  of  the  Rational  Anthem  announce  the 


Photo  : Henz. 

'I'HE  “ KKK  XA  ” OK  FIRST  PLOUGHING  CEREMONY. 


>) 


\ .■ 


'r.  . , ■ 

^ ; 


I 


t 


535 


THE  SAVING  FESTIA^AL 

arrival  of  Majesty,  and  soon  after  the  King  enters  his 
paAnlion  and  the  ladies  of  the  Conrt  settle  themselves  in 
strict  order  of  precedence  in  theirs.  Suddenly  a wave 
of  commotion  passes  over  the  crowd  which  presses 
closer  round  the  edge  of  the  field,  the  erratic  strains  of 
the  military  brass  band  cease  abruptly,  and  upon  the 
new-born  silence  the  thin  high-pitched  note  of  one 
small  flageolet  comes  across  the  sunlit  plain,  heralding 
the  approach  of  the  chief  actor  in  the  ceremony.  A 
three-barred  refrain  in  a plaintive  ke,y  is  played  on  the 
flageolet,  and  repeated  over  and  over  again  in  alterna- 
tion with  the  throbbing  beat  of  twenty  muffled  drums, 
to  which  weirdly  impressive  accompaniment,  the  music 
of  ancient  Siamese  ceremonial,  the  Minister  of  Agri- 
culture approaches,  carried  shoulder-high  upon  a throne 
at  the  end  of  a procession  of  trident-bearers,  bowmen 
and  spearmen  costumed  as  warriors  of  the  brave  days 
of  old.  The  procession  passes  on  to  the  field  through 
the ‘Jungle  Gate,’  and  the  Minister  descending  from 
his  throne,  disappears  to  offer  a prayer  before  the  altar 
in  the  shed.  A pair  of  oxen,  gail}-  caparisoned  in  red 
velvet  and  gold-thread  harness,  are  led  forward  and  are 
yoked  to  a plough  resplendent  with  gilding  and  glass 
spangles,  the  fore-end  of  which  curves  up  from  under 
the  yoke  and  terminates  in  a carved  figure-head,  and, 
when  all  is  ready,  the  Minister  emerges,  glittering  in 
the  jewelled,  cloth-of-gold  flress  and  conical  crown  of 
the  kings  of  ancient  Siam,  prostrates  himself  l:)efore 
Majesty  and  takes  the  plough  handle.  The  attendants 
of  the  oxen  now  urge  them  forward  and  lead  them  round 
the  field,  the  ploughshare  resting  lightly  on  the  earth 
and  making  the  smallest  of  furrows.  The  unwonted 
exertion  which  is  now  demanded  of  the  portly  Minister 
is  apt  to  loosen  his  heavily  embroidered  body-clotli 
which  in  Siamese  fashion  is  kept  in  place  by  no  more 
than  a twist  of  the  folds  of  it  at  the  waist.  Con- 


536 


SIAM 


sequently,  as  lie  follows  the  plough,  he  frequently  takes 
a hitch  at  this  garment,  each  hoist  and  jerk  being 
watched  with  the  keenest  anxiety  by  the  populace,  not 
however,  from  fear  of  the  gentleman  dropping  it 
altogether,  but  because  all  the  world  knows  that  if  it 
be  allowed  to  hang  too  low  the  rains  on  which  the  rice- 
crop  depends  will  in  the  coming  season  be  scanty, 
while,  if  too  much  slack  be  taken  in  and  the  lower  edge 
hitched  high,  there  will  inevitably  follow  floods  which 
may  seriously  endanger  the  harvest. 

x^fter  three  circles  are  completed  following  the 
direction  of  the  sun,  the  Minister  is  joined  by  two 
ancient  dames  carrying  baskets  of  seed-rice,  and  from 
these  he  takes  the  grain  and  scatters  it  as  he  goes. 
A sufficiency  having  been  cast  abroad,  the  plough  is 
stopped,  when  with  one  accord  the  populace,  guards  and 
all,  burst  on  to  the  field,  and  with  eager  shouts  fall  to 
picking  up  the  precious  seed.  The  Minister  and  his 
old  ladies  make  a rush  for  the  shed,  but  before  they 
can  reach  it  are  surrounded  and  thoroughly  searched 
amid  peals  of  laughter,  for  any  grains  which  may  be 
adhering  to  their  clothes.  The  scene  which  ensues  is  a 
striking  one.  With  the  object  of  securing  a few  grains 
of  this  seed,  which  on  account  of  its  sacred  nature  is 
said  to  surpass  the  best  manures  when  mixed  with  the 
seed-grain  of  the  cultivator,  men,  women,  and  children 
tunil^le  over  each  other  in  the  wildest  confusion,  the 
fruit-sellers  leave  their  baskets  to  join  in  the  scramble,  the 
16th  century  trident-bearers  jostle  and  try  conclusions 
Avith  the  helmeted  and  belted  body-guard,  Avhile  from 
every  point  of  vantage  cameras  rake  the  field.  The 
excitement  continues  till  not  a grain  is  left  upon  the 
ground,  Avhen  the  croAvd  retires  and  the  Minister, 
approaching  the  Royal  pavilion,  prepares  for  the  next 
scene.  This  consists  in  the  placing  of  small  quantities 
of  various  grains,  rice,  maize,  millet,  peas,  beans,  etc.. 


THE  SWING  FESTIVAL. 


537 


upon  the  ground  in  baskets  and  in  leading  up  the 
oxen,  which  have  been  released  from  the  gilded  plough, 
and  encouraging  them  to  eat.  The  animals  are  watched 
with  breathless  interest  since  of  the  grain  of  which  they 
shall  eat  most,  the  crops  of  the  ensuing  year  will  be 
poorest,  and  all  are  naturally  eager  not  to  miss  this 
' straight  tip  ’ from  the  spirit-world.  The  result  is, 
however,  annoyingly  indefinite,  for  the  animals  being 
apparently  unequally  amenable  to  spiritual  influence, 
it  often  happens  that  one  of  them  merely  snuffles  round 
the  baskets,  while  the  other  appears  desirous  of  eating 
the  whole  lot  if  allowed  to  do  so.  They  are,  however, 
soon  hustled  off,  their  attendant  Brahmans  seemiogly 
satisfied  with  their  performance,  notwithstanding  the 
evident  mystification  of  the  general  public. 

Attention  is  now  directed  towards  the  altar  in  the 
shed,  round  which  fervent  xorayers  are  being  intoned  by 
the  Brahmans,  while  one  of  their  number,  half  concealed 
behind  the  altar  licks  a lead  pencil  and  furtively  writes 
upon  a piece  of  foolscap  ! Presently  this  one  comes 
forward,  and  in  a loud  voice  interprets  the  signs  which 
have  been  observed  during  the  ceremony.  ‘ Rice  will 
be  plentifid,  the  millet  crop  will  be  ])oor,  the  rains  will 
be  sufficient,  though  the  higliest  level  at  flood-time  will 
be  six  indies  lower  than  last  year.’  Hereupon  the  brass 
band  strikes  up  the  National  Anthem,  His  Majesty,  who 
has  waited  for  the  verdict,  drives  off  with  his  clattering 
escort  and  the  crowd  spreads  out  fanwise,  streaming 
across  the  fields  towards  the  city.  Everybody  is 
contented  and  happy,  the  more  so  because  millet  is 
cultivated  scarcely  at  all  in  these  jiarts,  while  it  is 
remembered  that  the  floods  were  just  about  six  inches 
too  high  last  year.  The  old-time  warriors  dribble  off 
informally,  the  body-guard  marches  away  and  the 
Minister  joins  a group  of  friends,  smilingly  receives 
their  congratulations,  and  amateur  photographic 


538 


SIAM 


attentions,  and  shortly  offers  to  them  the  edifying 
spectacle  of  a medieval  Asiatic  monarch  trying  to 
consume  an  iced  brandy  and  soda  without  over- 
balancing his  diamond-studded  crown. 

Spirit  Worship 

As  though  the  demands  of  Buddhism  and  Brahmanism 
were  not  sufficient  to  satisfy  all  reasonable  yearning 
towards  religious  exercises  and  superstitious  obser- 
van  -es,  the  Siamese  must  needs  recognise  the  existence 
of  an  immense  number  of  more  or  less  supernatural 
invisible  beings,  the  ghosts  of  deceased  men  and 
women  (and  sometimes  of  animals)  whose  corporeal 
being,  owing  to  some  special  cause,  has  not  been 
properly  dissolved  by  death  and  of  whom  therefore 
an  immaterial  but  semi-human  part  persists  for  a 
variable  period  after  death,  and  who  can  only  be 
prevented,  by  continual  propitiation  or  deception,  from 
indulging  an  insatiable  proclivity  for  interference  with 
the  schemes  and  desires  of  mankind.  Fortunately 
their  power  is  subject  to  many  and  peculiar  limitations, 
so  that  subterfuge  and  trickery  which  would  not 
deceive  a child  are  often  sufficient  to  outwit  them  and 
frustrate  their  nefarious  designs,  while  those  which  are 
proof  against  cheating  can  generally  be  propitiated  by 
the  smallest  and  cheapest  of  offerings.  Such  beings 
include,  besides  the  dryads  and  kelpies  with  which 
the  imagination  of  mankind  has  ever  peopled  the 
forest,  the  flood  and  the  fell,  the  ghosts  of  countless 
individuals,  unusual  circumstances  of  whose  life  or 
death  have  compelled  their  subsequent  interest  in 
mundane  affairs.  Some  are  more  malevolent  than 
others,  some  include  the  whole  of  mankind  within  their 
sphere  of  action,  while  others  confine  themselves  to 
a single  community  or  family.  But  all  are  liable,  if 


SPIRIT  WORSHIP  53!> 

neglected,  to  exercise  their  powers  to  the  detriment  of 
their  votaries. 

Many  passages  in  the  Life  of  the  Buddha  show  that 
the  presence  of  such  beings  had  long  been  recognised 
when  Buddhism  began,  and  was  accepted  by  that 
philosophy  as  among  the  ordinary  facts  of  existence, 
though  the  Buddha  deprecated  their  propitiation  and 
strictly  enjoined  upon  the  members  of  his  Holy  Order 
to  have  nothing  to  do  with  them  under  any  circum- 
stances. 

These  existences,  to  whom  the  generic  name  Pin  is 
aj)plied,  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  angels  or 
Tewadas,  sometimes  also  called  Phi  by  the  undis- 
criminative,  the  inhabitants  of  the  different  Heavens 
on  or  around  the  Mount  Meru  and  who,  though  also 
suj^erhumau  beings  evolved  from  the  merit  of  human 
individuals,  form  a huge  class  altogether  apart  from 
the  ordinary  Phi  and  represent  the  subsequent 
existences  of  all  those  who,  without  attaining  to  the 
rewards  of  advanced  meditation,  have,  by  leading 
good  lives  and  observing  the  commandments,  lost 
almost  all  present  interest  in  the  world  of  men  and 
entered  into  the  enjoyment  of  the  paradise  which 
rewards  the  virtuous. 

The  Phi,  in  fact,  are  simply  the  ghosts  and  golilins, 
the  elves  and  little-people  which  constituted  the 
only  objects  of  worship  liefore  the  introduction  of 
Brahmanism  and  Buddhism  and  which  still  inspire 
the  only  manifestations  of  religion  amongst  the  wild 
hill-tribes  of  Siam  and  Further  India  generally.  They 
have,  of  course,  been  greatly  toned  down  and  their 
cult  has  long  been  shorn  of  much  of  its  more  rugged 
and  uncouth  aspect,  but  every  now  and  then  an 
example  of  stupid  cruelty  due  to  superstitions  regard- 
ing the  Phi,  and  their  attendant  witchcraft  and  magic, 
will  crop  up  to  show  that  in  the  midst  of  an  ancient 


540 


SIAM 


civilization  the  wild  beliefs  born  of  ignorance  and 
terror  which  once  swayed  all  mankind  still  persist 
below  the  veneer  of  later  and  more  sane  philosophies. 
The  analogy  between  the  Siamese  cult  of  the  Phi  and 
the  animistic  beliefs  which  once  prevailed  in  Europe 
is  so  complete  as  to  force  itself  continually  upon  the 
notice  of  even  the  most  casual  observer. 

To  describe  at  all  fully  all  the  different  kinds  of  Phi 
which  vex  the  lives  of  the  people  would  require  many 
volumes  and,  moreover,  would  entail  an  amount  of 
inquiry  and  research  which  has  never  yet  been  devoted 
to  the  subject.  Comparatively  few  Phi  are  known  to  the 
general  public  and  the  mediums  (Mot  kon  Song)  who 
could  doubtless  give  accurate  descriptions,  based  on 
actual  acquaintance,  of  the  manners  and  appearance  of 
the  more  retiring,  are  not  easily  found  or  when  met 
with  are  often  coy  about  revealing  their  mysteries.  Of 
the  commoner  sorts,  however,  that  is,  those  whose 
manifestations  are  the  most  frequent,  it  is  possible  to 
give  a few  details  which,  though  meagre  and  alto- 
gether incomplete,  may  serve  to  indicate  the  nature  and 
endowments  of  the  hosts  of  malevolent  ‘ spooks  ’ in  the 
midst  of  which  the  Siamese,  by  due  propitiation,  manages 
to  lead  an  existence  which,  it  must  be  admitted,  is  on 
the  Avhole  far  from  uncomfortable. 

Ghosts  and  goblins  form  the  class  of  Phi  Avhich  is 
best  knoAvn,  probably  because  of  their  perhajDs  not 
unnatural  predilection  for  hanging  about  the  haunts 
of  men.  Foremost  among  these  are  the  ghosts  which 
liave  constituted  themselves  the  guardians  of  com- 
munities and  public  institutions.  Such  are  frequently 
the  ghosts  of  people  of  note,  the  founders  of  that  which 
they  Avatch  over,  or  of  high  officials  killed  in  the 
defence  of  strong  places,  etc.,  but  are  perhaps  more 
often  the  spiritual  remainder  of  mere  nobodies,  con- 
verted into  beings  of  much  honour  and  poAver  by  the 


A WAYSIDE  SHKIXE  IN  NORTH  EKN  SIAM 


f 

f 

'■i 


"i 


4i 


NSCKIBED  PILLAR  NOW  IN  THE 
ROYAL  LIP,RARY,  BANGKOK. 
(Supposed  to  be  a Lak  Muang.) 


SPIRIT  WORSHIP 


541 


simple  operation  of  having  their  throats  cut.  All  cities, 
villages,  bridges,  roads,  irrigation  dams  have  a particular 
ghost  of  this  degree  who  has  his  shrine  in  some  prominent 
place,  his  regular  days  for  propitiatory  services,  and 
frequently  his  own  peculiar  rites. 

The  San  Chao  Lak  Muang  or  ‘ Shrine  of  the  Lord  of 
the  Pillar  of  the  Country  ’ is  an  institution  without 
which  no  Siamese  community  is  complete.  Amongst  the 
ruins  of  all  the  ancient  cities  which  aspired  at  an}^  time 
to  independence,  the  site  of  the  shrine  can  be  x^ointed 
out,  while  in  some  it  still  remains  j)firtiall3^  or  wholly 
entire.  In  the  dark  interior  of  these  holy  x) laces  stood 
a XDillar  of  stone  or  of  wood,  the  pivot  of  the  national 
existence  as  it  were,  surrounded  by  effigies  of  the 
tutelary  deities  and  of  one  or  more  Pin,  guardians 
usually  of  the  kind  manufactured  by  the  sacrifice  of 
human  life  and  devoted  thenceforth  to  the  general  care 
of  the  x)]ace  and  to  the  xDrotection,  individually  or  in  the 
mass,  of  all  its  inhabitants.  The  San  Chao  Lak  Muang 
of  Bangkok  stands  near  the  palace  and  consists  of  a 
small  building  surmounted  by  a Phraprang.  A richly 
gilded  Avooden  pillar  stands  in  the  middle  of  the  shrine 
Avith  effigies  of  angels  and  of  Phi  and  Avith  the  offerings 
of  votaries  all  about  it.  The  guardian  Phi  are  freely 
consulted  by  persons  in  search  of  lucky  numbers  to 
back  in  the  Cliinese  lotteries,  and  childless  Avomen  make 
offerings  to  them  in  the  hope  of  promoting  a change  in 
their  condition. 

In  Bangkok  there  is  a second  shrine  in  the  nature  of 
San  Chao  Lak  Muang  but  of  eA^en  greater  poAA^er  and 
celebrity.  This  is  the  San  Chao  Ilaiv  Klong  situated 
near  WatPoh.  King  Phra  Buddha  Yot  Fa,  the  founder 
of  the  present  reigning  family,  built  a toAA^er  on  the  tox*) 
of  AAdiich  drums  AA^ere  beaten  to  arouse  the  citizens  in 
case  of  fire  or  other  danger,  and  erected  a triple  shrine 
close  by.  A Phi  AA^as  made  by  the  sacrifice  of  a suitalffe 


542 


SIAM 


individual  and  was  installed  there  with  all  honour  under 
the  title  of  Chao  Chet,  and  especially  devoted  thenceforth 
to  the  protection  of  the  city.  All  but  the  foundation  of 
the  Haw  Klong  or  ‘ Tower  of  Drums  ’ has  long  since  dis- 
appeared but  the  shrine  remains  and  in  the  central 
chamber  stands  an  image  of  Chao  Chet  in  the  traditional 
costume  of  Tewada  flanked  by  effigies  of  Phra  Khan, 
the  four-armed  Lord  of  Darkness  and  Death  riding  on 
his  owl,  Phra  Sen  Muang  and  Phra  Song  Muang,  all 
gods  of  Brahmanic  origin.  The  shrine  is  dilapidated 
and  crumbling  and  has  apparently  never  been  repaired 
since  it  was  set  up  a hundred  and  twenty  odd  years  ago. 
X CA-ertheless  it  is  much  frequented  and  Chao  Chet  is 
far  from  being  forgotten.  Gold-leaf  appears  in  patches 
on  the  shrine  walls  both  inside  and  out,  and  on  the 
l:)odies  of  the  images,  the  features  of  Chao  Chet  himself 
being  practically  obliterated  beneath  the  incrustation 
which  has  accumulated  on  his  face  at  the  hands  of  four 
generations  of  supplicants.  The  horses,  cattle,  slaves  and 
theatrical  representations  (the  last  a special  weakness  of 
the  Pin)  which  have  been  promised  in  return  for  favours 
asked  and  which  have  been  paid  in  the  form  of  small 
j)aper  dolls  and  toys  which  all  spirits  are  i^opularly 
supposed  to  mistake  for  the  real  articles,  are  piled  in 
heaps  amongst  burnt-out  joss-sticks  and  withered 
garlands,  and  stuck  upon  the  doors  and  inner  walls  are 
written  prayers  for  aid  in  all  sorts  of  private  matters. 
One  of  these  last  on  letter-paper  headed  by  the  printed 
address  of  a well-known  firm,  asks  for  a fortunate  issue  to  a 
Imsiness  speculation,  and  in  another  the  writer  annoum  es 
himself  by  name  as  having  committed  a murder  and  asks 
that  the  prosecution  in  his  a]^]3roaching  trial  may  break 
down  and  he  be  acquitted.  Official  recognition  of  Chao 
(diet  takes  the  form  of  a printed  invitation  card  issued 
by  royal  command  and  requesting  the  honour  of  the 
presence  of  the  Pin  at  a forthcoming  religious  ceremony. 


SPIRIT  AVORSHIP 


543 


Every  house  in  Siam  has  it  private  tutelary  spirit, 
though  it  appears  that  this  is  not  always  the  ghost  of 
a celebrated  ancestor  but  sometimes  a brownie  or  elf 
who  has  found  his  w^ay  in  amongst  the  family  and 
settled  doAAUi  to  a comfortable  sinecure,  confident  of 
honourable  treatment  and  of  a share  of  all  the  good 
things  that  may  be  going,  and  \A’'ell  aAvare  that  should 
he  by  chance  be  neglected,  the  first  misfortune  Avill 
bring  his  votaries  to  his  feet  with  apologetic  offerings 
and  humble  petitions  for  the  A\dthdraAval  of  ill  Avill. 
In  every  Siamese  building  except  those  made  of  brick, 
the  corners  of  a small  square  of  cloth  may  be  seen 
hanging  from  the  top  of  each  of  the  house-posts,  AAdiere 
the  rafters  rest  upon  them.  No  sensible  person  omits 
these  little  squares  of  cloth  AA^hen  building,  for  without 
them  the  elves  AAdio  inhabited  the  tree  before  it  Avas 
felled  and  coiiA^erted  into  timber,  AA^ould  probably  enter 
the  posts  and  so  attach  themselA^es  to  the  house,  causing 
sickness  and  all  manner  of  trouble  to  the  inmates.  The 
cloth  hoAvcA^er  effectually  prevents  this,  though  vAiy  a 
being  aaTo  has  poAver  to  enter  into  solid  timber  should 
be  defeated  by  a little  piece  of  calico  is  one  of  those 
]joints  on  Avhich  the  professors  of  spirit-AA^orship  avoid 
discussion.  The  Phi  LaicP,  or  common  ‘ spooks,’  Avhose 
sole  business  it  is  to  appear  before  and  terrify  children 
and  adults  left  alone  in  the  dark,  are  a numerous  bod^v 
These  have  been  knoA\m  to  emphasise  their  presence  by 
tickling  and  pinching  and  it  is  for  fear  of  them  that 
solitary  Avayfarers  usually  sing  or  speak  aloud  in  Avould- 
be  confident  tones  AAdien  Avalking  liy  night,  more 
especially  on  dark  and  lonely  roads. 

The  country  is  of  course  full  of  ghosts  of  peo])le 
murdered  or  devoured  by  Avild  animals,  P/T  Jlomj  : of 
Avonien  dead  in  child-birth.  Phi  Pal ; of  men  AAdio  have 
died  aAvay  from  home  and  not  had  proper  obsequicts ; of 
those  AAdio  have  died  suddenly  of  cholera.  Phi  11  a,  and 


544 


SIAM 


so  forth.  These  are  all  specially  malevolent  and 
difficult  of  propitiation.  It  is  well  to  be  continually  on 
guard  against  them  for  they  assume  all  sorts  of  seem- 
ingly innocent  forms  in  order  to  lead  the  unwary  to 
destruction.  Their  bite  or  scratch  is  said  to  cause 
sickness  which  is  frequently  fatal.  Some  of  them,  as 
Pin  Pok  Ka  Long,  delight  in  leading  travellers  into  the 
clutches  of  wild  beasts,  others.  Pin  Ta  Moi,  cause  sudden 
darkness  in  which  people  lose  their  way  and  fall  over 
precipices  or  encounter  other  grave  accidents.  The 
Pin  Pal  are  impervious  to  all  propitiation  or  cajolement 
but  pursue  mankind  with  untiring  vengeance.  Against 
the  Pill  Song  Nang,  the  ghosts  of  ladies,  who  have 
loved  too  well  and  too  often,  young  men  cannot  be  too 
carefully  warned,  their  business  being  to  tempt  sus- 
ceptible male  creatures  from  the  paths  of  virtue  by 
appearing  before  them  in  diabolical  beauty,  afterwards 
devouring  any  who  fall  victims  to  their  wiles.  The 
Pill  Kum  Ngeum  are  those  who  watch  over  treasure 
hidden  in  caves,  in  ruined  pagodas  or  buried  under  the 
earth  and  who,  unless  most  carefully  approached,  strike 
death  and  disease  (with  the  aid,  maybe,  of  bad  air,  or 
chilling  damp)  into  adventurers  who  would  rob  them 
of  their  charge.  The  Pin  Kra  Sen  make  a speciality 
of  annoying  ladies  in  the  condition  politely  called 
‘interesting.’ 

There  are  elves,  fairies  and  demons  of  such  great 
antic juity  that  all  tradition  as  to  their  original  human 
condition  has  been  lost.  These  vary  greatly  in  the 
extent  of  their  hostility  towards  mankind.  The  Phi  I 
Koi  whose  breath  carries  malignant  fevers,  the  Phi  Hoi, 
l^earers  of  cholera  and  Phi  Sok  who  bring  the  smallpox, 
are  demons  of  the  most  implacable  disposition,  who 
usually  ignore  the  offerings  which  are  made  to  them 
and  the  devices  by  which  it  is  sought  to  delude  them, 
and  who  are  best  propitiated  with  clubs  or  firearms  after 


SPIRIT  WORSHIP 


545 


tlieir  exact  position  lias  been  ascertained  by  witchcraft. 
Sanitation  has  also  been  known  to  put  these  to  flight 
but  is  a weapon  which  until  recently  has  found  little 
favour  with  the  Siamese.  The  Phi  Nong  Mai  who  live 
in  trees  and  the  Phi  Nam  or  water  sprites,  are  usually 
harmless  though  by  no  means  averse  from  occasional 
practical  joking  at  the  expense  of  individuals  who  too 
rashly  venture  into  their  power.  As  for  the  Phi  Naroh^ 
the  demons  who  stoke  the  fires  of  hell  and  apply 
the  scientific  tortures  provided  in  those  regions,, 
the  only  way  to  avoid  their  attentions  is  to  be  good 
and  so  preclude  the  necessity  for  a sojourn  amongst 
them. 

The  science  of  witchcraft  is  very  closely  connected 
with  Phi  and  in  fact  the  chief  pretentions  of  its 
numerous  professors,  from  the  saintly  Brahman  down 
to  the  humblest  Maiv  Dil,  or  seer,  consist  in  the 
intimacy  of  their  acc|uaintance  with,  and  their  knowledge 
of  the  ways  and  powers  of,  all  the  species  of  this  vexatious 
genus.  In  all  cases  of  sickness  the  Maw  Du  is  called 
in  to  discover  the  nature  and  individuality  of  the  Phi 
who  is  at  work,  and  thereafter  to  exorcise  it.  When 
the  various  charms  and  spjells  which  are  brought  tO' 
bear,  fail  to  relieve  the  patient,  a second  Maw  Du  is 
summoned  who  probably  condemns  the  original  diagnosis 
and  institutes  a course  for  the  expulsion  of  some  different 
kind  of  Phi.  Music  and  bathing,  are  among  the 
commonest  prescriptions  for  most  diseases,  while  the 
practitioner  often  attempts  to  blow  the  spirit  away,  to 
wave  it  off  with  green  boughs  or  to  entice  it  forth  by 
whistling  to  it. 

The  manufacture  and  sale  of  charms  brings  wealth  to 
the  Maiv  T)u,  but  unfortunately  the  Buddliist  monks 
too  often  spoil  the  business  by  the  keenness  of  their 
competition.  LoA^e-charms,  identical  in  composition 
with  those  supplied  by  the  g}7isies  to  rustic  English 

2 IM 


546 


SIAM 


lovers,  bewitcliment  by  means  of  wax  images  stuck  full 
of  pins  or  sharp  thorns,  charms  against  gunshot  wounds, 
sword-cuts  and  snake-bite,  and  to  ward  off  sickness  of 
all  kinds  are  habitually  used,  and  though  often  sadly 
ineffectual  and  disapj^ointing,  are  vastly  popular. 
Many  people  are  known  to  possess  familiar  spirits  called 
Fill  Fholi  which  they  can  cause  to  enter  the  bodies  of 
their  friends,  and  to  afflict  the  same  with  sickness.  The 
Maio  T)u  is  in  his  element  when  called  upon  to  deal 
with  such,  and  discovers  with  surprising  ease  the 
author  of  the  malady,  more  especially  when  paid  to 
saddle  the  guilt  upon  some  obnoxious  member  of  the 
community  who  is  forthwith  robbed  and  turned  out  of 
his  house  to  become  a social  leper. 

Hardly  any  action  of  every-day  life  is  undertaken 
without  some  previous  or  subsequent  recognition  of 
a supernatural  influence  supposed  to  be  actively 
interested  in  the  matter,  a recognition  which  may 
amount  to  no  mom  than  a perfunctory  genuflexion,  or 
comprise  an  elal^orate  service  of  propitiation.  Offerings 
are  made  to  the  Fill  of  the  sea  to  secure  fortunate 
fishing  and  a good  haul  of  fish  is  recognised  by  the 
burning  of  incense  round  about  and  inside  the  returning 
boats.  To  fell  a tree  or  to  take  a wild  beehive  is  never 
safe  without  previous  exorcisms  while  the  shortest 
journey  requires  the  propitiation  of  the  household  P7z^. 
In  times  of  epidemic  it  is  usual  to  invite  the  Fill  which 
is  causing  the  disease  to  a feast  in  a diminutive  hut  or 
boat  specially  constructed,  and  when  he  is  busy  eating 
to  convey  him,  lint,  eatables,  and  all  to  the  nearest 
river  and  there  set  him  adrift  in  the  hope  that  he  will 
not  be  able  to  find  his  way  back  again.  But  it  is  in 
matters  connected  with  agriculture  that  the  greatest 
precautions  are  observed.  Not  only  are  the  household 
Fill,  the  village  guardian  spirit  and  the  Fill  of  the 
iieighlxmring  jungle  all  carefully  propitated  with 


SPIRIT  WORSHIP 


547 


offerings,  but  steps  are  taken  to  keep  any  maliciously 
disposed  spirit  off  the  land  altogether.  To  prevent  an 
immaterial  being  from  tresjoassing  on  one’s  land  would 
seem  a difficult  feat,  but  is  in  fact  one  of  the  simplest. 
There  are  more  ways  than  one  of  accomplishing  it,  but 
none  is  more  efficacious  than  the  erection  of  a small 
bamboo  stick  with  a piece  of  cloth  fixed  to  it  at  each 
corner  of  the  land,  which,  if  done  at  exactly  the  right 
moment  and  with  accompaniment  of  just  and  proper 
invocations,  is  never  known  to  fail,  all  instances  where 
unaccountable  poorness  of  crops  or  other  untoward 
circumstance  denotes  the  presence  of  malign  influences, 
being  of  course  attributable,  not  to  the  inefficacy  of  the 
iDarrier,  but  to  some  oversight  or  error  which  must  have 
occurred  in  the  rites  attending  its  erection.  In  the 
centre  of  the  patch  of  carefully  smoothed  bare  ground 
which  serves  each  cultivator  for  a winnowing  floor, 
a figure  of  straw  resembling  a man  is  erected.  This  is 
called  ‘ Ta  Pu,’  and  is  probably  intended  to  represent 
the  guardian  Plil  of  the  peasant.  Before  it  is  placed, 
a little  altar  made  of  split  bamboo  and  a few  choice  ears 
of  rice  are  deposited  on  it  as  an  offering. 

Principal  among  charms  used  for  warding  off 
evil  are  the  little  plaques  of  silver  with  cabalistic  words 
scratched  on  them,  rolled  into  cylinders  and  strung  on 
a cord  worn  over  one  shoulder  and  under  the  other  or 
round  flie  waist,  and  esjiecially  relied  upon  by  women 
who  wish  to  escape  the  attention  of  Phi  Kra  Sew ; 
small  medallions  inscribed  with  Pali  texts  and  called 
‘ Bai  Serna,’  worn  by  children  ; tattoed  marks  consisting 
of  minute  s])ots,  or  (jf  ‘IJnalom,’  a sort  of  inverted  mark 
of  interrogation  ; and  tiny  ])ieces  of  charmed  silver  or 
gold  let  into  the  skin  to  render  the  wearer  Inillet  ])roof. 
It  is  re]oorted  that  these  last  were  served  out  to  the 
troops  during  the  troubles  with  France  a few  years  ago, 
and  although  this  particular  fact  is  not  true,  it  is  certain 


548 


SIAM 


tliat  many  of  the  soldiers  privately  supplied  themselves 
with  them. 

In  the  hour  of  his  anguish  a man  will  recklessly  bribe 
the  spirits  quite  beyond  his  means,  and  when  restored 
to  equanimity  will  fulfil  his  vows  by  placing  before  the 
San  Flira  Fum,  tree  or  other  habitat  of  the  spirit  of  his 
invocations,  a tiny  paper  effigy  of  the  promised  offering 
which  can  be  bought  for  an  infinitesimal  price  in  any 
bazaar.  The  poor  deluded  spirits  never  apparently 
awaken  to  this  childish  deception,  but  judging  by  the 
hundreds  of  little  paper  horses,  cattle,  carts,  slaves,  etc., 
which  accumulate  round  some  shrines,  are  always  ready 
to  be  taken  in  again. 

From  the  wide  extent  of  the  cult  of  the  Fhi  and  from 
the  fact  that  the  Buddhist  monks  themselves  are  so 
frequently  mere  devildodgers  and  charm-mongers  it  is 
evident  that  the  amount  of  whole-hearted  spirit  worship 
which  the  Siamese  combines  with  his  Brahmano- 
Buddhism  is  very  great,  and  that,  for  all  the  observances 
of  this  latter  and  in  spite  of  its  many  beautiful  tenets, 
the  official  religion  is  little  more  among  the  country 
people  than  a top  veneer,  which  the  least  calamity  rubs 
off,  exposing  the  immemorial  animist  beneath  it.  In 
every  house,  in  every  forest  glade,  in  the  fields  and  in 
the  crowded  streets  are  to  be  seen  the  little  teakwood 
houses  or  San  Flira  Fum  erected  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  some  Fin  or  other.  The  very  Wats  themselves 
are  not  exempt,  for  in  the  rural  districts  spirit  offerings 
are  exposed  on  the  walls  of  these  ai)d  within  the 
sacred  precincts. 

Notwithstanding  the  teachings  of  the  Buddha,  that 
the  power  of  all  ghosts,  goblins  or  elves  is  mere 
illusion,  the  Siamese  calmly  persists  in  his  superstitions 
and  beliefs  concerning  them.  He  hears  the  spirits  of 
the  drowned  wailing  OA^er  the  Avater  and  trembles  at 
the  hearing,  he  glimpses  at  the  AA^oodland  dryads  peep- 


SPIRIT  WORSHIP 


549 


iiig  and  glancing  amongst  the  forest  trees,  and  argues 
sickness  or  death  therefrom  ; his  toes  are  nibbled  in 
his  sleep  by  mischievous  ghosts  and  his  crops  suffer 
from  the  depredations  of  an  infinity  of  marauding  elves. 
The  thunder  and  the  lightning,  the  rain  and  the  storm 
at  sea,  all  accidents  and  all  misfortunes,  are  manifesta- 
tions of  Pin  which  the  philosophy  of  the  Buddha  cannot 
gainsay,  and  so  he  goes  his  way,  intent  upon  the 
placation  and  exorcism  of  his  imaginary  tormentors, 
after  the  manner  of  his  forefathers,  with  a wary  eye 
open  for  the  chance  of  assisting  his  propitiations  with 
the  little  subterfuges  and  chicanery,  by  which  he  incon- 
sistently believes  the  most  powerful  spirits  may  often 
be  deceived. 


Other  Religions 

But  though  Buddhism  may  not  hold  the  sole  place  in 
the  hearts  of  the  Siamese,  its  influence  has  proved  an 
insurmountable  obstacle  to  the  proselytising  efforts  of 
foreign  missionaries  who  have  attempted  to  make 
converts  among  the  people  and  who  have  been  present 
in  the  country  ever  since  the  beginning  of  the  IGth 
century  a.d.  About  1620,  or  possibly  rather  earlier  the 
Portuguese  settlers  in  Siam  introduced  Roman  Catholic 
priests  into  the  country  but  it  was  not  until  1662  that 
any  serious  effort  was  made  to  obtain  converts  to 
Christianity,  such  effort  being  then  due  to  the  founding 
of  a French  Mission  to  the  Far  East  and  to  the 
selection  of  the  capital  of  Siam  as  its  headquarters. 
From  that  time  down  to  the  present  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion  has  maintained  a footing  in  the  country  but, 
in  spite  of  the  general  tolerance  with  which  it  has 
been  treated  and  the  encouragement  which  it  has 
received  from  more  than  one  Siamese  King,  it  has 
failed  to  impress  itself  upon  the  Siamese  as  in  any 


550 


SIAM 


way  superior  to  the  national  beliefs.  Moreover,  by 
mixing  in  politics  the  priests  have  more  than  once 
brought  the  country  within  measurable  distance  of 
foreign  subjection  and,  by  their  flagrant  attempts  to 
embroil  Siam  with  France  during  the  last  twenty 
years,  have  brought  upon  their  mission  the  dislike  of 
all  true  Siamese.  Consequently,  though  there  are  now 
two  bishoprics,  many  churches  and  a multitude  of 
priests  in  Siam,  the  congregation  consists  almost 
entirely  of  Chinese,  Annaniese  and  other  foreigners, 
a large  percentage  of  whom  have  entered  the  fold  in 
order  to  become  French  proteges  and  so  escape  from 
the  ordinary  duties  of  Siamese  citizenship,  while  the 
only  thing  of  genuine  good  resulting  to  the  country 
from  250  years  of  labour,  sacrifice,  intrigue  and 
quarrelling,  is  the  secular  education  which  the  Mission 
offers  to  the  young  of  l^oth  sexes  in  its  colleges  and 
convents. 

Since  the  earl}^  part  of  the  19th  century  an  American 
institution  known  as  the  American  Presbyterian  Mission, 
has  been  at  work  in  Siam.  Its  members  are  widely 
dispersed  over  the  country  and  by  reason  of  the  medical 
knowledge  which  is  one  of  the  qualifications  for  the 
calling,  have  done  a great  deal  of  good  in  introducing 
simple  remedies  amongst  the  country  people  and  in 
promoting  the  study  of  medical  science  by  the  Siamese 
generally.  Their  schools  have  also  been  of  much  value 
to  the  country  in  the  past  but,  like  the  Roman  Catholics, 
they  have  failed  in  the  main  object  of  their  existence, 
and  after  nearly  a hundred  years  of  work  have  A^ery 
few  Siamese  Christians  amongst  their  flock. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  century  a.d.  an  attempt 
was  made  to  coiwert  the  AAdiole  country  to  Islam,  the 
Arab  merchants  frequenting  this  part  of  the  AA^orld  and 
of  AAdiom  there  Avas  a considerable  colony  at  the  capital, 
believing  that  the  success  with  AAdiich  Mohammedanism 


OTHER  RELIGIONS 


551 


had  been  introduced  amongst  the  Malays  might  be 
repeated  on  a large  scale  with  the  Siamese.  In  this 
supposition,  bred  of  their  enthusiasm  for  the  faith,  tlie}^ 
were,  however,  mistaken  and  their  doctrines  were  so  far 
from  being  acceptable  to  the  people  as  to  give  rise  to 
a popular  commotion  during  which  a large  number  of 
Moslems  achieved  the  sanctity  of  martyrdom. 

The  extraordinary  religions  tolerance  shown  by  the 
Siamese  has  been  often  misinterpreted  both  as  in- 
difference towards  their  own  religion  and  as  a leaning 
towards  that  of  other  people  but  such  tolerance  is  the 
result  of  contemptuous  indifference  rather  than  of 
approval,  and  of  the  certainty  in  the  minds  of  the 
people  that  no  religion  can  compare  with  Buddhism  as 
they  know  it  and  that  consequently  there  is  little  fear 
of  any  sane  follower  of  the  Teacher  being  led  away 
by  the  arguments  of  the  missionaries,  whether  of 
Christianity,  Mohammedanism  or  any  other  form  of 
religions  belief. 


PART  VII 

LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE  AND  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

The  Siamese  form  of  speech  l)elongs  to  the  well-defined 
Tai  group  of  what  has  been  called  the  Siamo-Chinese 
family  of  languages.  Its  connection  with  Chinese  is 
plain,  though  the  two  have  little  or  no  outward  re- 
semblance. Its  relationship  vdth  the  other  languages 
of  the  Tai  group,  however,  is  so  close  that  a person 
using  any  one  of  these  would,  at  least  partially,  l^e 
understood  at  Bangkok,  while  between  Siamese  and  Lao, 
the  speech  still  used  by  a large  part  of  the  people  of 
Siam,  the  differences  are  scarcely  more  than  dialectal. 


552 


SIAM 


Siamese  is  spoken  throughout  Central  Siam,  in  all  parts 
of  Southern  Siam  except  the  Patani  Monton,  in  Northern 
Siam  along  the  river  banks  as  far  up  as  Utaradit  and 
Paheng,  and  in  Eastern  Siam  as  far  as  the  coniines  of 
the  Korat  Monton.  In  Patani  the  common  language 
is  still  Malay,  in  the  upper  part  of  Northern  and  in 
the  outlying  parts  of  Eastern  Siam,  the  2^i*evailing 
language  is  Lao  but  the  many  hill-tribes  which  occu]3y 
the  ranges  of  these  jiarts,  have  distinct  languages  of 
their  own. 

P In  its  original  form  Siamese  was  purely  monosyllabic, 
that  is,  each  true  word  consisted  of  a single  vowel 
sound,  either  preceded  by  or  followed  by  a consonant. 
Of  such  monosyllables  Grierson  observes  that  Siamese 
has  1851  only,  while  the  other  Tai  languages  are  either 
not  at  all,  or  very  little  better  off.  Such  a number  of 
words  is  of  course  altogether  inadequate  for  the  supply 
of  any  l3ut  the  most  elementary  of  languages,  and 
hence  many  syllables  have  to  do  duty  for  the  expression 
of  more  than  one  idea,  confusion  l^eing  avoided  by  the 
tone  in  which  they  are  s23oken,  whence  the  term  ‘tonal,’ 
which  is  applied  to  all  the  languages  of  this  family. 
Thus,  and  also  with  the  aid  of  a great  number  of 
compound  words  formed  by  the  coupling  of  two  of 
the  monosyllabic  words,  and  with  ap2)ropriations  from 
the  ancient  classic  Pali  (called  “ Bali  ” in  Siamese)  and 
other  foreign  sources,  the  Siamese  language,  consisting 
now  of  some  15,000  words  has  been  built  up.  It  has 
been  a long  time  in  the  making,  and  moreover  is  still 
growing,  for  the  evolution — perhajjs  more  energetically 
active  than  at  any  former  period  of  the  history  of  the 
race  Avhich  employs  it — may  be  Avatched  to-day. 

Tlie  process  may  l^e  said  to  have  begun  AA^hen  the 
Lao-Tai  clans  first  came  in  contact  Avith  the  Mon-Khmer 
people  of  the  Sukhothai-SaAA-ankalok  kingdom,  and  Avhen 
the  former  began  to  adopt  the  customs  and  ideas  of 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  553 


their  more  civilised  neighbours,  at  the  same  time 
borrowing  the  words  in  which  to  express  such  customs 
and  ideas.  Gradually,  as  the  Lao-Tai  blood  became 
fused  with  the  Khmer,  the  language  which  the 
northerners  brought  with  them,  primitive,  doubtless, 
but  robust  and  full  of  the  qualities  that  survive,  ousted 
that  which  had  been  the  speech  of  the  country,  adopting, 
of  course,  a great  many  of  its  words. 

The  ancient  language  of  the  kingdom  of  Magadha, 
called  Pali,  derived  from  Sanscrit,  in  which  the  sacred 
writings  of  Buddhism  were  made,  was  largely  instru- 
mental in  forming  the  languages  of  Further  India, 
supplying  them  with  a great  number  of  words  and. with 
a form  or  forms  of  writing,  from  which  the  different 
alphabets  now  qn  use  have  been  derived.  Thus  there 
exist  connecting  links  between  the  Mon,  Burmese  and 
Siamese  languages  of  the  present  time,  though  these 
are  of  quite  separate  origin,  and  before  the  introduc- 
tion of  Buddhism,  can  have  had  little  more  in  common 
than  the  few  root-words,  such  as  ‘ pa  ’ and  ‘ ma,’  ‘ father  ’ 
and  ‘mother,’  which  appear  more  or  less  the  same  in 
every  language. 

The  speech  composed  of  the  original  Lao-Tai  dialect 
with  the  admixture  of  Khmer  and  the  importations  from 
Pali,  was  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  Siamese  people 
down  to  the  13th  and  14th  century  a.d.,  but  from  al)out 
that  period  onwards,  tlie  developments  of  trade  and  of 
foreign  intercourse  l^rought  new  objects  and  new  ideas 
before  them  at  an  ever  increasing  rate,  and  for  the 
expression  of  these  olqects  and  ideas,  words  were  freely 
borrowed  from  foreign  languages,  wliere  they  could  not 
be  made  by  stringing  together  Siamese  words,  and 
lienee  at  the  present  day  a considerable  number  of 
Chinese,  some  Malay  and  not  a few  European  (especially 
Portuguese  and  English)  words  are  in  regular  daily 
use,  and  form  part  of  the  language. 


554 


SIAM 


When  education  and  go\^ernment  administration  after 
western  methods  were  first  introduced,  the  tendencj^ 
to  adopt  European  terms  wholesale  was  very  marked. 
But  of  late  years  there  has  been  more  of  an  eflbrt  to 
render  by  Siamese  or  Pali  compound  words,  the  names 
of  new  objects  and  the  expression  of  thoughts  running 
in  new  channels,  and  many  curious  compound  forms, 
part  Siamese,  part  Pali,  have  been  evolved  for  this 
purpose.  Thus  thora.  ' far  distant  ’ in  Pali,  and  lek, 
the  Siamese  for  ‘mark’  or  ‘writing,’  together  make 
thoralek,  ‘writing  from  afar,’  or  ‘ telegraph  ’ ; and  again 
rant,  ‘ cart  ’ or  ‘ carriage  ’ in  Siamese,  and  yon,  ‘ a 
machine  ’ in  Pali,  make  rant  yon,  ‘ machine  carriage  ’ 
or  ‘motor-car.’ 

The  Siamese  alphabet  is  simply  one  of  the  many 
variations  found  in  Further  India  of  an  ancient  Indian 
form  of  writing.  It  would  appear  that  the  earl}’ 
Dravidian  settlers  in  Pegu  and  Ivambodia  brought  with 
them  the  alphabet  which  they  had  used  in  their  former 
homes.  In  each  of  these  widely  separated  localities, 
the  character  gradually  assumed  a distinctive  form, 
due  doubtless  to  the  diiierences  of  language  and  pro- 
nunciation to  which  it  had  to  accommodate  itself,  and 
also,  in  a manner  to  local  peculiarities  of  the  materials 
and  implements  used  for  writing  it.  The  alphabet  first 
known  to  the  ancestors  of  the  Siamese  was  a Ivambodian 
variation  of  the  ancient  Indian  writing,  and  this  the}" 
used  aud,  as  their  language  grew,  altered  to  suit  their 
own  pecularities  until  in  course  of  time  the  Siamese 
alphabet  as  it  is  now  was  evolved.  This  alphabet, 
though  coming  directly  from  the  Khmer  or  Kambodian, 
shows  in  its  construction  a more  distant  relationship 
with  the  Mon  or  Peguan,  the  parent  of  the  modern 
Burmese  alphabetic  script. 

The  Siamese  alphabet  consists  of  forty-four  consonants 
in  each  of  which  the  vowel  sound  ‘aw,’  is  inherent,. 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  555 


wlierefore  it  is  called  syllabic,  and  of  thirty-two  vowels, 
all  marked,  not  by  individual  letters,  but  by  signs 
written  above,  below,  before  or  after  the  consonant  in 
connection  with  which  they  are  to  be  pronounced.  The 
two  letters  which  liy  themselves  produce  the  sound  ‘ aw  ’ 
and  ‘}Tiw,’  and  which  may  be  likened  to  the  European 
letters  ‘ a ’ and  ‘ y,’  are  not  considered  as  vowels,  because 
they  are  used  as  consonants  in  the  support  of  the  vowel 
signs.  To  the  European  it  is  at  first  difficult  to  under- 
stand the  necessity  for  so  many  as  forty-four  consonants, 
seeing  that  the  Roman  alphabet  with  only  twent}^  is 
sufficient  for  the  expression  of  the  intricate  language  of 
the  west,  but  the  reason  for  so  large  a number  becomes 
clear  ivlien  it  is  known  that  several  letters  express  eacli 
a slightly  different  intonation  of  what  is  practically  the 
same  consonant.  For  instance  the  sound  ‘kh’  is  repre- 
sented by  six  different  letters,  and  the  sound  of  ‘ t ’ l)y 
no  less  than  eight,  other  letters  being  present  only  for 
use  in  certain  words  imported  from  Pali  or  Sanscrit 
(one  letter  being,  in  fact,  used  in  one  word  011I3’  in  the 
whole  language). 

The  vowel  signs  have  no  sound  by  themselves,  l)iit 
act  upon  the  vowel  sound  ‘ aw,’  inherent  in  every  con- 
sonant, converting  it  into  ‘a,’  ‘ i,’  ‘ o,’  ‘ ai,’ and  so  on. 
Each  of  the  signs  has  a name,  and  some  of  them  pro- 
duce modulations  so  closely  resembling  those  made  by 
another  that  at  the  present  day  the}’  are  scarcely  to 
be  distinguished  apart.  Sometimes  the  vowel  sound 
is  suppressed  altogether,  notalily  in  consonants  at  the 
end  of  a word. 

A hard  and  fast  rule  of  pronunciation  is  that  only 
vowel  or  diphthong  sounds,  or  the  letters  ‘ m,’  ‘n,’  ‘ ng’, 
‘k,’  ‘ t,’  and  ‘p’  are  permissible  at  the  end  of  words; 
in  accordance  with  this  rule  the  final  letter  of  all 
words  ending  in  anything  else,  is  sini])ly  supjiressed 
Or  is  pronounced  as  though  it  were  a letter  producing 


556 


SIAM 


one  or  other  of  these  sounds.  Thus  many  of  the 
words  obtained  from  foreign  sources,  not  excluding 
Pali  and  Sanscrit,  are  more  or  less  mutilated  in  pro- 
nounciation,  though  the  entirely  suppressed  or  altered 
letter  or  syllable  is  still  retained  in  writing.  Until  this 
rule  is  understood  the  student  is  usually  much  confused 
by  the  apparently  methodless  pronunciation  of  a final 
‘ r ’ as  ‘ n,’  of  ‘ s ’ as  ‘ t,’  and  so  forth.  There  are  end- 
less other  vagaries  of  pronunciation  each  of  which  is 
provided  for  by  rule,  and  there  are  also  some  which 
appear  to  be  colloquialisms  and  are  not  accounted  for 
in  the  grammar,  of  which  last  the  interchangeability 
of  certain  letters  is  one  of  the  most  noticeable  points, 
‘ s ’ and  ‘ t,’  ‘ k ’ and  ‘ t,’  ‘ r ’ and  ‘1,’  ‘ n ’ and  ‘ 1,’  being 
commonly  interchanged.  The  substitution  of  U’  for 
‘ s ’ or  of  ‘ t ’ for  ‘ k ’ is  chiefly  heard  amongst  uneducated 
people ; the  use  of  ‘ 1 ’ instead  of  ‘ r,’  which  is  now  very 
common,  was  originally  due  to  the  incapacity  of  the 
Chinese  section  of  the  j3opulation  to  pronounce  the  letter 
‘ r,’  and  ‘ 1 ’ for  ‘ n ’ is  a transposition  common  to  other 
eastern  languages,  the  natives  of  India,  for  instance, 
frec[uently  saying  Nucklow  for  Lucknow,  as  the  Siamese 
says  Lakhon  for  Nakhoii. 

Siamese  is  written  from  left  to  right.  In  manuscript 
there  is  usually  no  space  left  between  words,  but 
punctuation  is  expressed  by  intervals,  isolating  phrases 
and  sentences.  The  paragraph  is  preceded  by  a sign 
called  fonrj  man,  a circle  within  a circle,  and  is  closed 
by  anotlier  called  khomtif,  a sort  of  corkscrew  flourish. 
A sign  called  tho  denotes  repetition  of  the  word  pre- 
ceding it,  and  another  sign  called  la  hanijan  stands 
for  etcetera. 

Some  sixty  or  more  years  ago  a veiy  curious  alphabet 
was  invented  by  Prince  Phra  Chom  Klao,  then  a monk 
under  the  title  Wajirawana  and  afterwards  King  Mong- 
kut.  This,  which  was  called  Ariyaka,  was  composed  of 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  557 


Pali,  Greek  and  Roman  characters,  and  the  object  of  it 
was  to  permit  the  rendering  of  all  Siamese  vowels  by 
letters  placed  in  line  with  the  consonants,  instead  of  by 
signs  above  and  below  them.  It  seems  also  to  have  been 
the  desire  of  the  inventor  to  provide  a sort  of  national 
alphabet  which  might  take  the  place  of  Khom,  (the 
Khmer  or  Kambodian  alphabet)  which  is  used  for  all 
scriptural  writings  in  the  Siamese  temples.  Several 
monks  were  instructed  in  the  new  method,  it  was 
introduced  into  the  Wat  and  some  manuscript  books 
were  made  with  it.  The  letters  were  also  made  into 
type,  and  a few  books  were  printed.  But  the  scheme 
failed  to  arouse  the  serious  attention  of  the  ecclesiastical 
body.  It  never  came  into  general  use  and  of  the  few 
men  who  learnt  it  most  are  now  dead,  while  the  books 
printed  in  accordance  with  it,  are  kept  in  the  royal 
library  merely  as  curiosities. 

It  is  perhaps  in  the  mastering  of  the  tonal  system 
that  the  greatest  difficulty  with  the  Siamese  language 
lies,  at  any  rate  for  foreigners.  It  has  already  been 
remarked  that,  the  number  of  original  true  words  being 
too  small  for  any  but  the  most  primitive  language, 
several  meanings  had  to  be  applied  to  one  monosyllable, 
the  difference  being  marked  by  the  tone.  Of  the 
simpler  kind  of  these  tones  there  are  five,  the  common, 
the  rising,  tlie  acute,  the  deep,  and  the  dropped,  any 
one  of  which  when  applied  to  a syllable,  may  give  it 
quite  a distinct  meaning.  Four  of  the  simple  tones  are 
marked  in  the  written  character,  by  signs  placed  over 
the  consonant  affected,  and  the  absence  of  such  mark 
implies  that  the  one  remaining  tone  is  to  be  used.  A 
further  com])lication,  however,  is  caused  b}"  the  fact 
that  the  consonants  are  grouped  into  three  classes,  to 
each  of  which  a special  tone  applies,  and,  consequently, 
the  application  of  the  tonal  signs  to  a letter  lias  a 
different  effect  according  to  the  class  to  which  such 


•558 


SIAM 


letter  belongs.  It  is  therefore  a difficult  matter  to  learn 
to  read  the  Auirious  tones  correctly,  it  is  still  more 
difficult  to  commit  them  to  memory,  and  it  is  perhaps 
most  difficult  of  all  to  pronounce  them  properly  when 
learnt.  The  inflections  of  voice  to  which  Europeans 
are  accustomed,  such  as  the  interrogatory,  have  no  place 
in  Siamese,  which  is  all  in  the  even  tone  when  not  varied 
to  convey  the  special  meaning  of  the  words  spoken, 
and  the  variations  then  used  though  usually  distinct 
enough,  are  often,  in  spite  of  their  extreme  significance 
so  slightly  marked  as  to  escape  any  but  a practised 
ear.  Every  syllable,  however,  has  its  own  distinct  tone 
which,  no  matter  how  fine  it  be,  must  be  exactly 
rendered  to  secure  accuracy  of  pronounciation  and, 
indeed,  of  meaning.  The  majority  of  syllables,  that  is 
words,  have,  however,  only  one,  or  at  the  most,  two 
meanings,  but  there  are  some  which  are  used  with  a 
number  of  different  inflections  each  of  which  gives  them 
a new  meaning.  Thus  for  example,  kao  or  khao  may 
mean  ‘they,’  ‘badly,’  ‘rice,’  ‘white,’  ‘old,’  or  ‘news’; 
seaa  may  mean  ‘coat,’  ‘tiger ’or  ‘mat’;  and  fai  may 
mean  ‘a  dam,’  ‘a  party,’  ‘on  the  side  of,’  ‘cotton,’  ‘to 
take  up,’  ‘ lavish,’  ‘fire,’  or  ‘ x^imple  ’ according  to  the  tone 
in  which  the  word  is  spoken.  A slight  error  in  tone 
may  therefore  make  a whole  sentence  unintelligible  or 
may  alter  the  meaning  of  it  in  an  altogether  surprising 
and  perhaps  disconcerting  manner. 

The  number  of  compound  words  in  Siamese  is  very 
large  and  is  divided  into  many  groups.  The  original 
words  of  the  language  were  mostly  used  up  in  suj^plying 
names  to  genera,  families  and  groups  of  ol)jects  and  to  a 
few  of  tlie  most  common  and  striking  varieties  of  tliese, 
so  that  for  every  otlier  variety  which  has  come  to  notice 
dui’ing  the  existence  of  the  language,  a compound  word 
made  u])  of  the  class  name  and  another,  or  others,  in- 
dicative of  some  noticeable  feature  of  the  variety  in 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  559 


question  has  been  coined  and  applied  to  it  in  the  same 
manner  as  is  found  in  European  languages,  hut  to  an 
infinitely  greater  extent.  Thus  the  names  of  most  plants 
are  made  up  of  the  word  ton,  ‘a  plant,’  with  another 
word  or  words  descriptive  of  the  particular  species, 
such  as  ‘the  broad-leaved,’  ‘the  thirty-rooted,’  etc., 
appended.  Again  the  names  of  almost  all  fish  include 
the  word  pla,  ‘a  fish,’  preceding  the  distinctive  term 
‘blue,’  ‘spoon-shaped,’  ‘tongue-shaped,’  ‘biting’  or 
‘ fighting,’  ‘ slippery,’  and  so  forth.  The  same  rule 
applies  to  birds,  the  word  noh,  ‘ a bird,’  forming  part 
of  most  bird  names  ; to  minerals,  where  the  generic  term 
Jiin,  ‘a  stone,’  or  rd,  ‘ore,’  are  used  in  a similar 
manner  and  to  inaii}^  other  classes  of  objects.  Another 
great  group  of  compound  words  is  that  which  has  been 
formed  to  supph^  names  for  abstract  notions,  for  which 
the  language  contains  hardly  any  original  monosyllabic 
words  at  all.  These  are  mostly  arrived  at  by  prefixing- 
one  of  the  words  khuam,  ‘a  matter  ’ or  ‘ an  affair,’  kham, 
‘a  Avord,’  or  kdn,  ‘ AAmrk,’  to  a verb  or  adjectiA^e.  Thus 
khuam  compounded  AAntli  hen,  ‘seeing,’  makes  kluiam- 
hen  or  ‘opinion,’  AAnth  siachai,  (‘  destroyed  heart,’)  makes 
khuam-siachai  or  ‘regret,’  AAotli  ' ching,'  (‘true,’)  makes 
kkuam-ching  or  ‘truth.’  Similarly  kham  compounded 
with  sa-Ry,  ‘ ordering  ’ makes  kham-sang,  ‘a  command,’ 
AAntli  nap,  ‘ saluting  ‘makes  kham-nap,  ‘ a salutation  ’ and 
with  saun,  ‘ teaching,’  makes  kham-saun,  a ’ doctrine,’ 
also  kdn  with  li eng,  ‘feeding,’  makes  kdn-lieng,  ‘a  feast,’ 
and  AAntli  sop,  ‘burying,’  makes  kdn-sop,  ‘a  burial.’  A 
third  group  is  that  of  names  for  objects  or  for  the 
expression  of  ideas,  Avhich  have  been  eA'oh'ed  iiy  the 
combination  of  tAvo  or  more  AA^ords  each  of  Avhich  has 
a meaning  only  remotely  or  not  at  all  connected  Avitli 
that  of  the  Avord  thus  formed.  Such  are  na))t  ta,  ‘ AA'ater 
of  the  eye’  or  ‘tear’  ; nam  now,  ‘ AAnter  of  the  breast  ’ or 
‘milk’  ; hang  seua,  ‘tiger’s  tail  ’ or  ‘rudder  of  a boat,’ 


560 


SIAM 


imk  kd,  ‘ crow’s  moutli  ’ or  ‘ pen  ’ ; kd  toa,  ‘ untying  the 
body  ’ or  ‘ excusing  oneself  ’ ; kliaw  la}-),  ‘a  sleeping  cir- 
cumstance ’ or  ‘ mystery  ’ ; khai  nd,  ‘ selling  the  face  ’ or 
‘ putting  to  shame  ’ ; khdng  meu,  ‘ hard  hand  ’ or  ‘ one 
devoted  to  w<^rk  ’ ; khlai  chai,  ‘ untwisting  the  heart  ’ 
or  ‘ being  relieved  ’ ; khap  ckai,  ‘ compressed  heart  ’ or 
‘ distressed  ’ ; kliat  ckai,  ‘ obstructed  heart  ’ or  ‘ angry,’ 
and  countless  others  of  which  many  are  peculiar  to 
Siamese  methods  of  construction  while  some  betray  a 
sequence  of  ideas  common  to  other  people,  among  the 
last  being  khai  muk,  ‘egg  of  the  oyster’  or  ‘pearl’; 
kkao  fai,  ‘hill  of  fire’  or  ‘volcano’;  rant  fai,  ‘fire 
carriage  ’ or  ‘ railway  engine.’ 

The  words  ckao„  ‘lord’  or  ‘master,’  hoa,  ‘head,’  luk, 
‘ oifspring,’  md,  ‘mother,’  enter  largely  into  the  com- 
position of  words,  as  cliao  chiwit,  ‘master  of  life-’  or 
‘king,’  cliao  ti,  ‘master  of  the  place’  or  ‘landlord’, 
hoa  inuang,  ‘ head  of  the  province  ’ or  ‘ capital,’  luk-mai, 
‘offspring  of  the  trees’  or  ‘fruit,’  luk-sit,  ‘ofPspringof 
learning’  or  ‘pupil,’  Me-nam,  ‘mother  (or  chief)  of 
Avaters  ’ or  ‘river,’  m e-tap,  ‘chief  of  the  army’  or 
‘ general,’  and  there  are  many  other  words  such  as 
phii  and  nak,  meaning  ‘person,’  and  khi,  ‘offal,’  which 
fill  similar  roles. 

The  construction  of  the  sentence  in  Siamese  is  straight- 
fonvard  and  simple.  The  subject  of  the  sentence 
precedes  the  verb  and  the  object  follows  it.  The 
possessive  pronoun  follows  the  object.  The  adverb 
usually  follows  the  A^erb.  In  compound  sentences  the 
verbs  are  placed  together  as  in  English,  not  separated 
by  the  object  as  in  German.  When  an  action  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  past,  the  AA^ord  A^diich  forms  Avith  the 
verb,  the  past  tense,  is  divided  from  the  verb  itself  by 
the  object.  Examples  are  : 

Rao  phiiying  samkhon  cha  pai  kio  khao  samrap  liai  cliangkin. 

We  Avoinen  three  persons  will  go  reap  paddy  for  give  elephant  eat. 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  5GI 


We  three  women  will  go  and  cut  some  rice  to  feed  the  elephants. 

Phaw  chan  yii  thi  nai  ? 

Father  my  live  place  which  ? 

Where  is  my  father? 

Phaw  than  pai  talat  leao. 

Father  you  go  market  done. 

Your  father  has  gone  to  the  market. 

Distinct  words  denoting  the  gender  of  nouns  are 
very  few,  no  more,  indeed,  than  those  which  stand  for 
parents  and  grandparents,  as  iYiau\  ‘father,’  a?  a, 

‘ mother,’  xm,  ‘ paternal  grandfather,’  fa,  ‘ maternal 
grandfather,’  pa,  ‘ paternal  grandmother,’  and  yai, 
‘maternal  grandmother,’  and  a few  words  of  Pali  or 
Sanscrit  origin  which  are  seldom  used.  In  order  to 
distinguish  gender,  the  rule  is  to  add  to  the  noun  one  of 
seA'eral  words  which  have  been  devised  for  the  purpose. 
Such  Avords  as  ehai,  ‘ masculine,’  and  ying  or  sao, 
‘feminine,’  also  ai,  ‘masculine,’  and  i,  ‘feminine,’  all 
of  which  Avere  applicable  to  human  beings,  the  last  tAvo 
preceding,  and  the  others  succeeding,  the  noun.  Theie 
are  also  toa  ylih,  ‘masculine,’  and  toa  viia,  ‘feminine,’ 
folloAving  the  noun,  and  naug,  ‘feminine,’  preceding 
the  noun,  applied  to  Avoinen  and  animals.  Examples 
are  hikchai,  ‘son,’  and  hikying  ‘daughter,’  dekchai, 
‘small  boy,’  and  dekying,  ‘little  girl,’  also  naung  sao, 

‘ younger  sister.’  Kgoa  toaphff.  means  ‘a  bull,’  and  ngoa 
toamia  or  nang  ngoa,  ‘a  coav.’  The  expressions  ai 
and  I,  though  at  one  time  a])plicable  to  human  beings 
generally,  haA^e  become  degraded,  and  are  uoav  used 
chiefly  to  designate  slaA^es,  ontlaAvs,  and  persons  in  dis- 
honourable circumstances,  though  at  the  same  time  they 
are  still  employed  to  distinguish  the  sex  of  babies,  and 
in  pet  names  for  children.  Thus  a robber  is  called 
ai  khon  mi,  and  a harlot  I daidt  thong,  AAfliile  ai  nu  and 
I nu,  ‘mousey,’  are  pet  names  often  Yixeii  to  small 
children  after  they  have  groAvn  out  of  the  earliest  l)abv 
2 N 


562 


SIAM 


age  when  they  are  called  Ai  Deng,  1 Deng  {=  Master  ’ 
or  ‘ Miss,  Red.’). 

To  denote  the  plural,  special  expressions  are  used 
with  the  noun,  which  itself  remains  unchanged.  Thus 
lilion  niing  means  ‘ a (one)  man,’  and  hlion  thanglai  means 
■‘men.’  Also  hlion  le  means  ‘ each  man,’  khon  dio,  ‘ one 
man  only,’  khon  dai,  ‘someone,’  khon  thang  phong,  ‘all 
men,  thuk  khon,  ‘ every  man,’  and  khon  hang  or  hang  khon, 
‘ some  men.’ 

Adjectives  include  many  true  words  such  as  raicn, 
‘ hot  ’ nao,  ‘ cold,’  di,  ‘ good,’  ehua,  ‘ had,  and  so  forth, 
but  a greater  number  are  compounds  of  a noun  and  a 
verb  or  of  a noun  in  conjunction  with  one  of  the  true 
adjectival  words,-  which  last,  in  such  combination, 
assumes  a new  meaning.  Some  examples  of  tliese  com- 
pound adjectives  liave  been  given  amongst  compound 
wmrds,  and  a few  others  are  nd,  ‘ face,’  and  kloa,  ‘ afraid,’ 
which  make  ndhJoa,  ‘terrible’;  nd,  ‘face,’  aiid'kliat, 
‘ to  hate,’  which  make  ndikliat,  ‘ loathsome  ’ ; ehai, 
‘heart,’  and  di,  ‘good,’  making  cliaidi,  ‘benevolent’; 
di  and  chai  making  diehai,  ‘ glad  ’ ; tern,  ‘ full,’  and 
ehai,  ‘heart,’  msking  tern  chai,  ‘willing’  ; thi,  ‘one  who,’ 
and  mk,  ‘to  love,’  making  thirak,  ‘lovable.’  Sometimes 
also  the  pronouns  an  ‘ who  ’ and  cheung,  or  seung,  ‘ which,’ 
are  used  in  conjunction  with  verbs  to  make  adjectives 
as  amva,  ‘who  speaks,’  or  ‘talkative.’ 

When  a Siamese  speaks  with  another  he  has  always  in 
his  mind  the  relative  rank  in  life  of  himself  and  of  the 
person  addressed,  and  chooses  his  pronouns,  both  of  the 
first  and  second  person,  with  due  consideration  for  such 
rank,  remembering  also  that  politeness  demands  that 
his  own  rank  be  slightl}^  depreciated,  and  that  of  the 
other  appreciated.  Hence  the  language  is  very  rich  in 
personal  pronouns,  or  rather  in  ^vords  and  collections  of 
vvmrds  which  do  duty  as  such.  Thus,  for  the  first 
person,  the  word  chan  is  provided  for  sj)eaking  Avith  an 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  563 


equal,  but  is  more  often  used  when  the  person  addressed 
is  of  slightly  inferior  rank ; phon?  is  for  use  when 
addressing  a superior  but  is  eniploj^ed  out  of  politeness 
when  speaking  to  an  equal,  being  varied  to  kraphoin  for  a 
noble,  and  'klaokrapliom  for  a prince  ; khacliao,  khapaehao, 
and  khaplwapkuttkachao,  meaning  literally,  ‘ I the  servant 
of  the  lord,’  ‘I  the  servant  of  the  excellent  lord,’  and  ‘I 
the  servant  of  the  excellently  enlightened  lord,’  are  used 
when  the  person  speaking  wishes  to  emphasise  the 
superiority  of  the  person  addressed,  the  last  being  used 
only  in  speaking  to  the  king  or  to  princes,  as  are  also 
kliapliraong  and  khaplnnhdt,  meaning  ‘I  the  servant  of 
the  excellent  quality,’  and  ‘I  the  servant  under  excellent 
feet.’  Kha  alone  is  used  when  the  person  addressed 
is  distinctly  inferior,  and  ku,  ‘I,’  Avhen  the  person 
speaking  desires  to  assert  great  superiority  or  to  be 
rude. 

Except  for  the  Avords  enrj,  ‘you,’  to  an  inferior,  and 
meuug,  ‘ you,’  and  man,  ‘ he,’  both  contemptuous  terms, 
personal  pronouns  of  tlie  second  and  third  person  are 
scarcely  to  be  distinguished.  A'af,  ‘master,’  than,  ‘sir,’ 
and  kip^  ‘ old  one,’  are  most  commonly  used  in  the  second 
person  but  can  be  applied  to  the  third.  The  remainder 
except  su,  ‘ you,’  an  old  form  still  commonly  used  in 
Shan  and  Lao  but  in  Siamese  confined  noAv  to  poetry, 
and  khao,  ‘ they,’  are  all  interchangeable.  Of  these  a feAv 
examples  are  khun,  ‘ honourable,’  a polite  form  of 
address  in  common  use,  children  addressing  their 
parents  as  khan  pliaw,  ‘honourable  fathe]-,’  and  khun  mil 
‘honourable  mother’;  plira,  det  pkrakhun,  ‘excellent 
splendour  and  mercy,’  Avhich  is  used  Avhen  asking  a 
favour  of  one  in  poAver  ; taitliao  or  taithaoknruna , ‘under 
the  feet,’  employed  AAdien  speaking  to  or  of  a high 
officer  of  state;  faphrahdt  and  falangtliuliphvabdt,  ‘I 

* But  note  that  the  AA^ord  AAdien  a pronoun  is  not  in  the  same 
tone  as  AA^hen  — ‘ old.’ 


564 


SIAM 


beneath  the  sole  of  3'onr  feet,’  and  ‘ I in  the  dust  beneath 
the  sole  of  yonr  august  feet,’  phrases  meaning  ‘you  ’ or 
‘ he,’  generally  emj)loyed  when  speaking  to  or  of  royalty, 
the  first  for  princes  and  the  second  for  kings.  These 
last  terms  have  now,  of  course,  to  a great  extent  lost 
their  literal  significance  and  are  simply  regarded  as 
polite  and  correct  forms  of  speech. 

The  personal  pronouns  all  act  as  possessive  when 
placed  after  the  word  expressing  the  object  to  which 
they  refer,  either  alone  or  in  conjunction  with  such 
words  as  Wioncj  or  heug,  ‘ belonging  to,’  signifying 
possession. 

Ki,  ‘ this,’  van,  ‘ that,’  and  naini,  ‘ yonder’  are  demon- 
strative pronouns  and  tlii  ‘ who,’  clieung  or  seung,  ‘ wdiich,’ 
an,  ‘ who  ’ or  ‘ which,’  and  yliu,  ‘ the  one  who,’  are  relative 
pronouns.  Khai,  ‘who,’  and  arai,  ‘what,’  are  interro- 
gative pronouns. 

Like  the  other  parts  of  speech,  verbs  are  unalterable, 
either  simple  monosyllabic  or  compound  words,  voice, 
mood  and  tense  being  made  by  the  addition  of  other 
syllabic  words,  or  left  to  be  understood  from  the  context 
or  by  the  position  of  the  verb  in  the  sentence.  Thus 
~klmo  hha  mi  means  ‘ He  kills  (a)  bear  ’ and  khao  kla  te 
mi  means  ‘ He  is  killed  by  a bear,’  the  addition  of  the 
word  te,  by  changing  the  mood  of  the  verb  from  active 
to  passive.  Doi,  ‘ Avith  ’ is  another  Avord  Avhich  is  used 
in  the  same  manner.  Again  khon  tek  keo  means  (a) 
man  l^reaks  (a)  glass,’  and  keo  tek  pai  means  ‘ (a)  glass 
is  broken,’  the  AAajrd  p>ai,  ‘going,’  making  the  A^erb  to 
break  passive.  Also  khon  khien  dek  means  ‘ (The)  man 
beats  (the)  boy,’  and  dek  thidv  khien  means  ‘ (The)  boy  is 
beaten,’  the  addition  of  the  Avord  tlvuk,  ‘ touched,’  making 
the  A^erb  to  l)eat,  and  others  relating  to  human  affliction, 
])assiA"e. 

The  present  indicative  tense  is  rendered  kkao  kin,  ‘ He 
eats’  or  khao  kin  yv,  literally  ‘He  eat  liAung,’  or  ‘He 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  565 


is  eating’  (yu  is  tlie  verb  ‘living’).  Kliao  kin  leao, 
literally  'He  eat  finished,’  is  the  }3ast  indicative,  leao 
being  the  verb  ‘ finishing.’  The  future  indicative  is 
kliao  clia  kin,  ‘ He  will  eat,’  and  the  future  perfect  is, 
kliao  cha  kin  leao,  ‘ He  will  eat  finished  ’ or  ‘ He  will 
have  eaten.’  Bangthi  cha  kin,  ‘ Perhaps  (he)  will  eat,’ 
and  pheua  cha  kin  dai,  ‘ in  order  that  eat  able  ’ or  ‘ in 
order  that  he  may  eat,’  may  be  called  forms  of  the 
subjunctive  mood.  Kin  or  kin  si,  ‘eat,’  or  hai  kin, 
‘let  eat,’  kliong  kin,  ‘ought  (to)  eat,’  and  tong  kin,  ‘must 
eat,’  are  forms  of  the  imperative  mood. 

Among  compound  verbs  which  commonly  recur  are 
those  in  which  uni,  ‘preserve,’  pai,  ‘go,’  ina,  ‘come,’ 
long,  ‘descend,’  are  used  vdth  another  verb,  as  fak  uni, 
‘ deposit,’  ao  pai,  ‘ take  go  ’ or  ‘ take  away,’  ao  ma, 
‘take  come’  or  ‘bring,’  and  tok  long,  ‘fall  descend’  or 
‘ fall  down.’  In  using  this  class  of  compound  verbs  the 
object  of  the  sentence  is  usually  placed  betvreen  the  two 
parts  of  the  Anrb,  thus  ao  m uak  pai,  ‘ take  hat  go  ’ or 
‘ take  away  (the)  hat. 

A large  number  of  compound  veiTs  are  formed  by 
the  union  of  a noun  and  a verb,  examples  of  which  are 
plong  hu,  ‘to  let  down  the  ear’  or  ‘ to  listen,’  pliuk  ma, 
‘ to  tie  the  horse  ’ or  ‘ to  saddle,’  pliaic  cliai,  ‘ to  compress 
the  heart  ’ or  ‘ to  fear,’  long  men,  ‘ to  put  down  the 
hand  ’ or  ‘ to  begin.’ 

Adverbs  of  place  are  fhi  ni,  ‘this  place,’  thi  nan,  ‘ that 
place,’  thi  naun,  ‘yonder  place,’  thi  nai,  ‘which  place,’ 
and  clid  nai.  ‘from  which  place.’  Some  adverl^s  of 
distance  are  klai,  ‘near’  and  klai,  ‘far,’  tvco  words 
which  though  neither  written  nor  pronounced  exactly 
alike  in  Siamese,  are  so  nearly  the  same  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  render  them  differently  in  English  characters. 
Also  hang,  ‘ separate,’  na,  ‘ before,’  lang,  ‘ 1)ehind,’  sai, 

‘ left,’  and  khica,  ‘ right.  Adverbs  of  time  are,  meua 
‘ time  when,’  meua  kaun,  or  tliikaun,  ‘formerly,’  meua 


566 


SIAM 


nan,  ‘ that  time,’  meua  na,  meiia  pieiig  na,  meuapai  lang, 
and  seup  na,  ‘ future  time.’  Adverbs  of  affirmation  are 
chai,  ‘ it  is  so,’  eha,  chd,  and  several  other  words  which 
are  more  like  affirmative  hisses  and  grunts  than  true 
speech.  There  is  no  absolutely  flat  negation  corres- 
ponding to  ‘ no,’  the  use  of  such  being  contrary  to 
Siamese  conceptions  of  politeness.  Mai  chai,  apparently 
a corruption  of  maipen  tarn  chai,  ‘it  is  not  in  accordimce 
with  my  heart,’  or  ‘ it  is  not  so,’  is  the  shortest  form 
of  negation,  and  others  are  ha  me  dai,  literally,  ‘seek, 
is  not,’  or,  ‘ I have  considered  and  do  not  find  it  so,’  and 
mai  hen  doi,  ‘ not  see  together  with  ’ or  ‘ I do  not  agree.’ 
The  word  plao,  meaning  ‘ empty,  vacant,’  is  used  as 
a negative  in  familiar  conversation.  All  the  affirmatives 
given  above  are  for  use  by  one  addressing  an  equal  or 
an  inferior.  From  an  inferior  to  a superior  the  expres- 
sion hhaiv  rap,  ‘ (I)  ask  (to)  receive,’  is  the  invariable 
affirmative  except  when  the  person  to  whom  affirmation 
is  addressed  is  a noble  of  high  rank,  when  it  becomes 
hliaiv  mp  phom,  or  a royalty  when  it  is  pliraphuttliachao- 
hha  hhorap,  ‘ I beneath  the  sole  of  the  august  feet  ask  to 
receive,’  for  the  king,  and  the  same  sentence  abbreviated 
to  petchaha  for  a prince.  The  Siamese  scarcely  con- 
templates the  use  of  negation  towards  one  of  higher 
rank  than  the  speaker,  certainly  not  when  the  former 
is  ro}"al  or  noble. 

Conjunctions  are  haw,  ‘then,’  le,  ‘and,’  hawdi,  ‘then 
good’  or  ‘well  then,’  also  leao  haw,  ‘finished,  then.’ 
Anung,  ‘ further  ’ or  ‘ again,’  is  commonly  used  to  intro- 
duce a new  sentence.  Te,  te  wa,  icen  te,  men  iva,  me 
and  mewa,  are  all  different  forms  of  ‘but.’  Het  cha  ni 
means  ‘therefore,’  prate,  praie  wa,  dot  and  doi  wa, 
mean  ‘wherefore.’  Tha,  means  ‘ if,’  and  itheua,  pheua 
wa,  and  pedang  nan,  stand  for  ‘ in  order  that.’ 

Among  interjections  figure  many  of  the  hisses  and 
grunts  shown  as  affirmatives.  Astonishment  is  ex- 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  567 


pressed  by  me  woi,  ‘ oli  motlier,’  and  painful  sensations 
produce  pliciw  oi,  ‘ oli  father.’  The  language  of  everyday 
use  is  well  supplied  with  expletives  most  of  which  are 
of  an  indecent  character. 

In  the  use  of  numerals  a class  of  words  more  or  less 
descriptive  of  the  objects  enumerated  is  employed 
together  with  the  numeral.  Thus  ‘ two  monks  ’ is 
rendered  phra  song  riip,  or  ‘ Excellent  ones  two 
images,’  and  ‘ two  princes  ’ are  cliao  nai  song  phra  ong, 
or  ‘ Princes  two  excellent  members.  ’ Three  men  are 
hlion  sam  hhon,  ‘ men  three  men,’  but  three  bullocks  are 
ngoa  sain  toa,  ‘ bullocks  three  bodies,’  the  word  toa  being^ 
applicable  in  this  manner  to  all  the  lo^ver  animals  except 
elephants  which  are  chang  sam,  cheuah,  or  ‘ Ele|)hants 
three  ropes.’  Toa  is  also  used  in  this  way  for  many 
inanimate  objects,  as  is  an,  ‘ a thing.’  Flat  things  are 
phen,  pliin,  phnn,  or  pan]  muan,  ‘ a roll,’  is  used  for 
things  rolled  up,  as  seua  lai  mnan,  ‘many  rolls  of  matt- 
ing.’ Lang,  ‘back,’  is  applied  to  things  covered  in, 
such  as  thrones,  houses,  and  sheds,  Avhile  reuan,  ‘house,’ 
is  used  for  things  encased,  as  nalika  song  reuan,  ‘ two 
Avatches.’  Things  done  up  in  parcels  are  Mum, 
‘packet,’  and  things  in  the  mass  are  kong,  ‘a  part}^,’  as 
sal  sam  hong,  ‘ three  heaps  of  sand.’  Things  held  in 
the  hand  are  khan,  ‘ handle,’  as  rom  si  khan,  ‘ Four 
umbrellas,’  literally,  ‘ umlirellas  three  handles.’  Lem  is 
applied  to  blades,  (dap  song  lem  ; ‘ two  SAvords,’  ) and 
hence  to  all  Avea])ons  (peun  nung  lem,  ‘ one  gun  ’ 
Curiously  enough  carts  are  Jem  and  carriages  are  khan. 
There  are  many  other  such  descriptiA^e  words  some  of 
AAdiich  apply  to  large  groups  of  objects,  Avhile  many  are 
used  for  enumerating  one  single  object  only,  an  example 
of  this  last  being  the  Avord  nat  used  Avith  a round  of 
ammunition,  or  shot,  from  a gun,  as  luk  krahauk  yisip 
nat,  ‘ tAA^enty  cartridges.’  Sometimes  also  instead  of  a 
descriptiA'e  AA^ord,  the  object  enumerated  is  simply 


568 


SIAM 


repeated,  as  ma  sam  ma,  ‘ dogs  three  dogs,’  instead  of 
ma  sam  toa,  ‘ dogs  three  bodies.’  Descriptive  words 
used  in  the  above  manner  are  of  course  common  to  all 
languages  but  are  perhaps  more  numerous  in  those  of 
Further  India  than  anywhere  else. 

It  will  now  perhaps  appear  that  Siamese,  for  all  its 
monosyllabic  nature,  possibly  on  that  very  account,  is  a 
complicated  language  and  one  which  can  be  used 
correctly  only  after  long  study  and  practice,  but  this 
fact  will  be  still  more  evident  when  it  is  understood 
that,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  language  of  the  people, 
there  is  a completely  different  set  of  words  ordained  for 
the  Lise  of  royalty.  This,  which  Frankfurter  calls 
‘ Palace  language,’  and  describes  as  a ‘ tendency  not  to 
call  a spade  a spade  but  an  agricultural  implement,’  ap- 
pears to  have  come  into  existence  from  a desire  to  avoid  the 
use,  in  the  x^reseiice  of  royalty,  of  downright  expressions 
of  vulgarity,  or  of  words  which  might  be  capable  of  con- 
veying an  unpleasant  or  indelicate  idea  other  than  the 
meaning  intended,  which,  in  the  Siamese  language 
where  so  much  depends  on  nice  distinctions  of  tone, 
frequently  happens  in  ordinary  conversation.  In  the 
search  to  escape  from  the  vulgar,  words  of  Sanscrit 
origin  have  lieen  freely  adopted  and  many  Kambodian 
words  are  also  used.  From  the  fact  that  where  the 
language  contains  a word  of  Lao-Tai  origin  and  one  of 
Kambodian  or  Khmer  origin  for  one  and  the  same 
thing,  the  Lao-Tai  word  is  the  vulgar  one  and  the 
Klimer  is  the  polite  one,  it  is  perhaps  to  be  inferred 
that  originally  Khmer,  the  language  of  a people  of 
suj)erior  civilisation,  may  in  the  early  da^^s  of  contact 
between  the  two  races  have  been  considered  more  polite 
than  the  rougher  and  more  barbarous  Lao-Tai  vernacular 
which  ultimately  sup})lanted  it,  and  that  therefore 
Khmer  words  might  sometimes  be  used  by  persons  who 
wished  to  show  a niceness  of  speech,  somewhat  in  the 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  569 


manner  of  those  who  introduced  many  French  words 
into  the  English  language  under  the  impression  that 
the  foreign  words  were  more  polite,  (an  example  being 
the  substitution  of  the  word  ‘ chemise  ’ for  the  English 
word  ‘ shift.’ ) The  Palace  language  is  so  complete 
that  the  dog,  the  pig,  the  crow  and  other  common  and 
unclean  animals,  are  all  exp]'essed  by  special  words, 
while  the  actions  of  royalty  such  as  eating,  sleeping, 
walking,  speaking,  bathing,  dying,  are  spoken  of  in 
words  quite  distinct  from  those  used  to  describe  similar 
actions  of  ordinary  people.  The  pronouns  and  affirma- 
tions used  in  speaking  to  or  of  royal  persons  have 
already  been  mentioned. 

The  prose  literature  of  Siam  consists  largely  of  mytho- 
logical and  historical  fables  almost  all  of  which  are 
of  Indian  origin,  ha\dng  come  to  Siam  through  the 
Khmers,  and  now  appearing  dressed  in  language  and 
detail  to  suit  Siamese  taste  and  ideas.  The  number 
of  tales  thus  adapted  is  larger  than  is  usually  supposed, 
the  majority  of  them  being  known  to  few  beyond  the 
writers  who  laboriously  copy  them,  and  the  professional 
raconteurs  who  draw  upon  them  for  the  replenishing 
of  their  stock-in-trade.  All  the  liest  known  have  been 
made  into  stage  jilays  and  it  is  in  this  form  that  they 
generally  come  to  the  notice  of  the  public.  Amongst 
them  are  Ramakien,  taken  from  the  great  Hindu  epic 
Ramayana  ; Wetijasunyin,  the  story  of  a king  who  was 
so  wrought  upon  by  the  contemplation  of  a withered 
tree  that  he  renounced  his  proud  position  and  became 
an  ascetic  ; Woraivomjs,  a tale  of  the  love  of  a prince 
for  a princess  who  vns  imprisoned  and  guarded  by  an 
enchanted  spear  which  fatally  stabbed  the  hero  as  he 
climbed  to  his  lady's  bower  ; Mahasot,  an  account  of 
the  wars  of  King  Mahasot  ; Chalatcan,  the  tale  of  a 
princess  who  was  carried  off  by  an  enamoured  crocodile 
and  rescued  by  her  human  loAmr,  only  after  a series 


570 


SIAM 


of  thrilling  adventures.  Unarud,  the  life  story  of 
Anuruddha,  a demigod  descended  from  Krishna  ; 
Pliumhon,  the  story  of  a princess  beloved  by  an  elephant, 
and  of  her  adventures  ; Na7ig  U Thmy,  one  of  the  many 
stories  of  the  loves  of  a Ndk,  ‘ Snake  ’ or  ‘ dragon  ’ 
princess  disguised  in  human  shape,  and  a mortal  prince  ; 
and  Prang  Tong,  the  tale  of  a princess  who,  before  birth, 
was  promised  by  her  mother  to  a Yok,  or  ‘giant,’  in 
return  for  a certain  fruit  which  she,  the  mother,  desired 
to  eat  ; of  the  carrying  off  of  the  infant  by  the  Yak,  of 
her  life  amongst  the  giants,  and  of  her  ultimate  restora- 
tion to  her  family.  The  story  called  Nok  Khum  is  one 
of  the  theories  of  the  genesis  of  mankind,  the  nok  khum 
being  the  sacred. goose  or  ^ Hansa,'  from  whose  eggs 
the  first  human  beings  were  supposed  to  have  been 
hatched.  There  are  also  many  stories  connected  with 
the  Buddha,  the  P attain ma  Som/pkothiyan  or  ‘Life’  of 
the  Teacher,  and  tales  of  ej)isodes  in  his  final  life  and 
in  the  former  stages  of  his  existence. 

There  exist  a considerable  number  of  books  on 
astrology  and  the  casting  of  horoscopes,  on  the  ways 
to  secure  victory  in  war,  success  in  love,  business  or 
gambling,  and  on  other  branches  of  magic,  to  which 
subject  the  Siamese  have  always  been  ver}^  partial.  On 
the  Siamese  practice  of  medicine  which  is  closely  allied 
to  magic,  there  are  also  several  works.  The  Niti 
literature,  that  is,  writings  consisting  of  old  sayings, 
traditions  and  good  counsels,  forms  a separate  class 
and  contains  amongst  many  other  works,  the  celebrated 
‘ Maxims  of  Phra  Ruang,’  the  national  hero  king,  on 
which  the  imagination  of  every  young  Siamese  is  fed 
to  satiety.  Another  well-known  lYiti  work  is  that 
called  ‘ Rules  for  the  conduct  of  Kings  ’ translated 
from  the  Pali. 

In  works  on  history,  Siamese  literature  is  unfortunately 
deficient.  There  is  evidence  that,  as  in  the  case  of 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  571 


all  the  other  kingdoms  of  Further  India,  complete  and 
detailed  chronicles  were  compiled  from  reign  to  reign 
h}"  order  of  Siamese  kings  hut  these  have  frequently  been 
scattered  and  lost  in  times  of  disturbance  and  recom- 
piled without  much  accuracy  from  memory  or  from 
fragments  subsequently  collected.  Thus  the  ‘ Annals 
of  the  North,'  the  'Annals  of  Krung  Kao'  or  Ayuthia, 
and  the  ‘ Book  of  the  Lives  of  the  Four  Kings  ' (of  the 
present  dynasty),  which  three  works  together  form  the 
only  more  or  less  connected  history  of  the  country  from 
remote  times  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  present  reign, 
contain,  at  least  so  far  as  the  earlier  parts  are  concerned, 
much  that  is  inaccurate,  and  a good  deal  which  isprobal)ly 
altogether  untrue.  A few  translations  of  history  of 
foreign  countries,  notably  a volume  on  Pegu,  and  text 
books  of  European  history  compiled  by  the  Education 
Department  make  up  the  sum  of  historical  works. 

Of  legal  books  there  are  a good  many  examples.  The 
Laksana  Fhra  TJiamasat,  Fhra  Tamra,  Phra  Tamnon, 
Inthapat,  and  Phra  liacha  Kamnot,  are  ancient  works 
setting  fortli  the  laws  of  the  country  in  their  oldest 
form,  adapted  from  the  iJlmrwaQastm  and  tlie  Laws 
of  Mann.  Many  (h  the  Edicts  passed  by  kings  of  the 
Ayuthia  period  have  lieen  preserved  and  those  of  the 
soA^ereigns  AAdio  have  reigned  at  Bangkok  form  a notable 
part  of  this  branch  of  the  national  literature.  Tliese 
include  a grectt  number  of  Revenue  Regulations,  LaAvs 
on  Civil  matters,  such  as  mortgage,  bankruptcy,  right 
of  AA^ay,  companies,  and  laAvs  governing  Court  Procedure, 
all  of  Avhich  adhere  to  Western  principles.  The  latest 
addition  is  the  Penal  Code,  a large  and  comprehensive 
AA'ork,  based  upon  the  Indian,  Japanese,  and  Erench 
Codes,  and  issued  in  1908. 

Poetry  is  a A^ery  ancient  art  in  Siam  and  lias 
alAA'ays  been  held  in  high  lionour;  many  of  the  best 
knoAvn  poets  AA'ere,  indeed,  members  of  the  royal  family. 


572 


SIAM 


There  are  several  quite  distinct  forms  of  metre  of  which 
the  most  commonly  used  are  the  Khlong,  and  the  Kap 
and  the  Klon.  The  Khlong  is  rhythmic,  the  play  being 
on  the  inflexion  of  the  voice  in  speaking  the  words  ; 
this  inflexion  is  arranged  according  to  fixed  schemes, 
the  rhyme,  if  it  can  be  so  called,  being  sought,  not  in 
the  similarity  of  syllables,  but  of  intonation.  The  Kap 
is  rhythmical  and  also  has  rhyming  syllables.  The 
lines  contain  an  equal  number  of  syllables  and  are 
arranged  in  stanzas  of  four  lines  each.  The  last 
syllable  of  the  first  line  rhymes  with  the  third  syllable 
of  the  second  line,  the  last  of  the  second  line  with  the 
last  of  the  third  line  and  also  with  the  first  of  the 
fourth  line,  and  at  last  the  fourth  line  rhymes  with  the 
last  syllable  of  the  second  line  of  the  next  succeeding 
stanza.  The  opening  stanzas  of  a celebrated  poem 
called  Kap  liaio  Mong  he  rtla,  or  the  Song  of  the 
Procession  of  Boats,  may  serve  as  example  of  this 
somewhat  complicated  system  of  rhyme.  Roughly 
transliterated  they  run  thus  : — 

Plira  sadet  doi  den  chon 
Song  riia  ton  ngam  chua  chai 
King  keao  plireao  pan  narai 
Pai  on  yap  chap  ngam  ngawn 

Na  wa  nen  pen  kanat 
Iman  rnp  sat  sen  ya  kanawn 
Rua  rio  tiew  pong  sal  awn 
Sakawn  Ian  kran  kren  phong 

and  mean  approximately  : — 

The  king  embarks  upon  the  water 
Using  his  most  magnificent  barge. 

Handsomely  ornamented  with  ‘ King  keao.' 

The  movement  of  the  pliant  paddles  is  beautiful  to  see. 

Crowded  together  but  preserving  order, 

Each  shaped  in  the  semblance  of  a curious  beast, 

The  vessels  move  along,  with  their  fiags  flying, 

Making  the  water  to  roar  and  foam. 

The  number  of  poems  in  one  or  other  of  these  two 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  573 


metres  is  very  great  and  includes  Akerses  on  almost 
every  theme.  In  the  Nirat  poetry,  a A-ery  fa\"ourite 
form  of  verse,  both  are  often  used,  a stanza  in  KhJong 
serving  as  a sort  of  argument  at  tlie  head  of  a set  of 
Akerses,  or  canto,  in  Kap,  This  Nirat  poetry  takes  the 
form  of  iiarratiA^e,  addressed  b}-  a traveller  to  his  lady- 
love, of  a journey  in  AAdiich  eA^ery  object  and  circum- 
stance serA^es  but  to  remind  the  AAunderer  of  some  one 
of  the  innumerable  Aurtues  and  beauties  of  her  AAdiose 
absence  from  his  side  he  continually  deplores.  In  many 
such  Avorks  the  journey  is  an  imaginary  one  introduced 
by  the  poet  as  a theme  on  AAdiich  to  string  together  as 
many  SAA^et  similes  and  lover’s  rhapsodies  as  his  faiicy 
can  deAuse,  but  in  some  it  is  a true  record  of  travelling 
or  campaigning,  and  lias  been  found  to  contain  much 
A'aluable  information  concerning  the  condition  of  out- 
lying parts  of  the  kingdom.  One  of  the  most  popular 
Nirat  poems  pictures  the  trai^els  of  a young  priiice 
accompanying  his  father,  the  king,  upon  an  expedition 
into  the  interior  by  Avater.  A rough  translation  of  a 
few  of  its  many  stanzas,  taken  at  random,  will  convey 
some  idea  of  the  usual  tenour  of  such  Avorks  : 

Tlie  Khrut  boat  carrying  a Ndk  in  its  month, 

Gracefully  floating  at  the  head  of  the  expedition, 

Its  roAvers  paddling  Avith  slow,  quiet  action. 

Comes  AATth  the  song  IIo  He  ! Oh  He  ! 

I see  the  Ashes  SAvimming  in  couples 
And  my  thoughts  turn  to  you  AAuth  sadness. 

Even  the  flsh  avoid  the  miseries  of  separation  ! 

What  am  I doing  here  alone  Avithout  you? 

As  the  boat  passes  I admire  the  trees 

GroAving  upon  the  banks,  orderly  and  of  so  many  kinds. 

The  floAvers  burst  out  upon  them  in  gloAving  masses 
And  their  pleasing  scent  is  like  your  perfumed  breath. 

I see  the  AvaAung  branch  of  the  Navg  Yem  plant. 

The  soft  blooms,  opening,  disclose  their  delicate  interior. 
And  my  mind  is  carried  SAviftlj-  to  the  thought  of  yon 
When  your  dear  lips  part  in  their  sAA^eetest  smile. 


574 


SIAM 


Of  the  little  love  songs  in  Klon  metre,  called  Klon 
2jet  ton,  there  are  many  hnndreds,  and  every  youth  and 
maiden  has  a selection  ever  at  the  tip  of  the  tongue. 
These  follow  a prescribed  form,  and  consist  of  eight 
lines  divided  into  two  stanzas  of  four  lines  each,  every 
line  containing  eight  syllables.  The  last  syllable  of  the 
first  line  rhymes  with  the  third  syllable  of  the  second, 
and  the  final  of  the  second  line  with  the  final  of  the 
third.  The  songs  treat  of  all  the  aspects  and  conditions 
of  love,  the  greater  number  being,  however,  invitations 
and  solicitations,  though  not  a few  are  laments  on  the 
inconstancy  of  the  affections.  Of  the  latter  class  an 
example  is  the  well-known  Rong  Lam  Nok  Khun  Thong 
or  ‘The  Minah  Bird  Lament,’  the  bird  being  a poetical 
simile  for  a fickle  lady.  The  words  are  : — 

Nok  khim  thong  khong  rao  te  kao  kawn 
Pai  main  khaAvn  kap  chao  keao  s’leao  naw 
Chi  cha  ! Chang  ke  rai  nam  chai  kaw 
Tit  nok  taw  leao  k’long  yn  krong  thong. 

Poh  plat  plat  pai  hai  chai  tek 
Thep  cha  pick  mai  riichak  tak  chao  khong 
Bnn  pi  noi  mi  dai  rom  chao  khun  thong 
Dai  phrakong  kieng  kan  taonan  eui. 

In  this  song  the  rhymes  are  plainly  distinguishable 
and  the  metre  is  well  preserved.  The  addition  of  the 
meaningless  word  eui  at  the  end  of  the  second  stanza  is 
a common  device  for  completing  the  metre  and  making 
tlie  end  of  the  song.  An  attemi3t  to  render  ‘ The  Minah 
Bird  Lament,’  in  English  with  the  proper  metre  and  with 
tlie  rhymes  placed  as  in  the  original,  is  as  follows  : — 
The  Minah  which  was  once  my  own 
Now  has  flown  off  with  gaudy  parrot. 

Ah  me  ! Light  of  love,  who  cannot 
Resist  bright  feathers  and  gilt  cage. 

New  fled,  strange  thoughts  already  All  you, 

Never  will  you  think  of  me  again. 

Luckless,  all  hope  to  hold  you  vain, 

I feel  our  love  is  at  an  end. 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  575 


A fourth  poetical  metre  is  Chan  which,  however,  is 
not  so  much  used  as  the  others. 

Before  the  introduction  of  printing  in  Siam,  literary 
works  were  all  in  the  form  of  manuscript,  written  vdth 
a soft  pencil  (called  Toa  Bong)  of  gamboge,  powdered 
and  made  into  sticks,  upon  the  black  surface  of  a long 
strip  of  cardboard  (Xangseu  Dam)  made  of  a coarse 
local  paper  and  folded  backwards  and  forwards  into 
“accordion  pleats.”  The  i^encil  made  a yellow  streak 
on  the  black  surface  and  the  script  was  often  freely 
illuminated  and  illustrated  in  colours.  Sometimes  the 
surface  of  the  cardboard  was  not  blackened  but  left  its 
natural  yellowish- white  colour,  in  which  case  the  writing 
was  done  in  Chinese  ink,  and  this  latter  style  was 
found  best  adapted  for  colour  illustration.  Such  works 
were  scattered  about  in  the  Wat  and  the  houses  of  the 
better  classes  and  doubtless  very  many  of  the  best 
examples  of  the  most  skilful  vrriters  and  illustrators 
have  perished  from  neglect.  But  within  the  last  few 
years  large  numbers  have  been  rescued  at  the  instance 
of  Prince  Damrong,  and  housed  in  the  royal  Vajirayaiia 
library  vdiere,  under  the  care  of  the  learned  curator, 
Dr  Frankfurter,  they  have  been  repaired,  classified  and 
catalogued.  It  is  difficult  to  overrate  the  services 
which  these  two  gentlemen  have  rendered  to  the  litera- 
ture of  the  country.  The  royal  library,  a government 
institution  which  was  founded  a great  many  years  ago 
as  a storehouse  for  the  national  literature,  and  to  foster 
a taste  for  serious  reading,  altogether  failed  to  fulfil 
these  objects  and  had  degenerated  into  a sort  of  club 
resorted  to  by  a few  young  men  for  the  purposes  of 
playing  billiards,  looking  at  the  comic  European  papers 
and  occasionally  reading  English  novels.  The  book- 
shelves were  loaded  with  much  useless  foreign  literature, 
and  a few  books  of  value  relating  to  Siam,  vdiich  had 
been  spasmodically  collected,  were  left  rotting  in  a for- 


576 


SIAM 


gotten  corner.  The  national  literature  was  entirely 
imrepresentecl.  Such  was  the  condition  of  the  institU' 
tion  when  Prince  Damrong  joined  the  committee.  He 
obtaiiied  the  services  of  Hr  Frankfurter,  who  had 
devoted  many  years  to  the  study  of  Siamese  literature, 
from  the  Foreign  Office,  arranged  with  the  Treasury  for 
an  annual  grant  of  money,  cleared  the  building  of  the 
billiard  tables  and  the  light  and  valueless  foreign  books, 
and  made  the  place  a receptacle,  only  just  in  time  to 
save  it  from  practical  extinction,  for  all  the  Siamese 
literature  which  could  be  found.  At  the  same  time  the 
curator  placed  himself  in  communication  with  the 
])rominent  dealers  in  Europe  whereby  numerous  valu- 
able works  on  Buddhism,  Brahmanism  and  on  the 
ancient  languages  and  customs  of  India  Avith  Avhich 
Siam  is  so  closely  connected,  liaA^e  become  the  property 
of  the  library,  making  it  an  institution  of  real  A^alue  in 
research,  and  one  AAnth  AAdiich  the  libraries  and  literar}^ 
societies  abroad  are  glad  to  correspond. 

The  introduction  of  printing  in  the  Siamese  character 
has  revolutionised  literature.  Reading  has  become  a 
general  accomplishment,  a demand  for  reading  matter 
has  arisen  and  bookshops  stocked  AAuth  books  haA^e 
apj)eared  to  satisfy  it.  The  historical  works  aboA^e 
referred  to  liaA^e  been  issued  in  many  editions  and 
placed  Avithin  the  reach  of  everybody,  and  selections 
from  the  fresh  manuscripts  collected  by  the  royal 
library  are  edited  from  time  to  time  and  put  into  print 
for  sale.  A large  number  of  the  ancient  fables  and 
romances  have  been  issued  in  pojAular  editions  and 
these,  Avith  plays,  songs  and  poems,  can  noAV  be 
])urchased  at  a trifling  price.  The  Educational  Depart- 
ment has  also  done  good  AA'ork  in  compiling  A^olumes  of 
stories  in  prose  and  Averse,  Avhich  liaA^e  found  faA-our 
Avith  the  public.  ^11  the  laAA's,  edicts  and  GoA^ernment 
regulations  at  present  in  force  are  noAv  to  be  had  in 


PKEPAKATIOX  OF  PALM  LEAF  WRITING  MATERIAL.  Photo  ■.  Antonio. 


I 


1 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


577 


print,  the  volumes  edited  by  H.R.H.  the  late  Minister  of 
Justice,  by  Khun  Luang  Phaya  Krais!  and  by  other 
legal  luminaries  being  obtainable  at  popular  prices. 
Printing,  in  fact,  has  supplied  a great  incentive  to  the 
development  of  literature  and  though  not  very  much  new 
and  original  work  has  yet  been  done  (apart  from 
poetry),  writing  as  a profession  is  beginning  to  be 
recognised  and  there  is  every  sign  that  in  this  as  in 
other  directions,  Siam  is  on  the  threshold  of  a great 
advance. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

General 

It  is  probable  that  the  earliest  distinct  reference  to  the 
country  now  called  Siam  in  any  knoAvn  record  is  to  lie 
found  in  Ptolemy’s  Geogra])hy  of  Eastern  Asia,  dated 
in  the  second  century  a.d.,  in  which,  as  Gerini  has 
shown,  the  very  ancient  kingdom  of  Sri  Wichaiya  is 
referred  to  under  the  name  Samarade.  But  it  is  to  the 
Chronicles  of  the  Sin  Dynasty  of  China,  put  together 
about  the  year  050  a.d.,  that  the  student  must  turn  for 
the  first  connected  accounts  of  the  country.  Here,  and 
again  in  the  History  of  the  Tang  Dynast}"  of  China, 
compiled  aljout  1000  a.d.,  there  are  set  forth  elaborate 
and  detailed  reytorts  of  the  manners,  customs  and  history 
of  certain  kingdoms  with  the  monarchs  of  which  the 
emperors  of  those  dynasties  were  in  friendly  relations. 
Some  of  these  kingdoms  have  been  revealed  hy  the 
comy)ilations  of  l\la  Tuan  Lin,  with  translations  of  the 
same  by  Ilervy  de  Saint-Denys,  De  Rosny  and  others,  and 
by  the  patient  investigations  of  Gerini,  to  be  members 
of  the  grou])  of  States  out  of  which  Siam  ultimately 
2 o 


578 


SIAM 


grew.  Such  Chronicles  contain  ranch  general  informa- 
tion Avhich  is  found  in  some  measure  to  corroborate, 
'Confirm  and  explain  the  main  points  of  the  vernacular 
histories  of  these  very  early  times. 

It  is  impossible  to  over-rate  the  importance  to  Siam 
of  these  Chinese  records,  the  elucidation  of  which  has 
to  a great  extent  dispelled  the  mists  surrounding  a 
period  of  which  it  was  thought  until  recently  that  no 
reliable  record  existed. 

Of  European  books  in  the  languages  of  Europe, 
mainly  concerning  Siam,  there  are  none  earlier  than  the 
seventeenth  century  a.d.  The  medieval  travellers  who 
found  their  way  to  the  Far  East  and,  on  returliing,  gave 
to  the  world  more  or  less  succinct  accounts  of  their 
wanderings  in  the  form  of  dictated  narrative  or 
laboriously  recorded  journal,  have  little  to  say  of  the 
Peninsula  of  Further  India  and  still  less  of  Siam,  and 
certainly  have  left  nothing  recorded  of  the  latter  which 
is  of  reliability  or  value. 

The  Portuguese  conquests  in  India  and  the  Far  East 
dnring  the  sixteenth  century  a.d.  had  no  lack  of 
historians,  who,  since  the  scene  of  operations  so  often 
lay  in  Further  India,  had  naturally  a good  deal  to  say 
of  that  region.  They  are  however,  chiefly  concerned 
with  the  coast  districts  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and 
though  references  to  Siam  proper  are  frequent,  they  are 
brief  and  not  very  informing.  Such  writers  include 
Barros  e Coiito  and  Camoens.  Later  there  came  others 
whose  business  was  not  so  much  to  record  Portuguese 
feats  of  arms  as  to  describe  their  own  adventures,  and 
of  these  tlie  most  prominent  is  Linschoten,  a Dutchman 
who  attempted  something  like  an  account  of  Siam, 
followed  by  others  of  various  nationality  amongst  whom 
Jaque,  De  Morga,  Cocks,  Caesar  Frederick  and  Ralph 
Fitdi  may  be  mentioned. 

Til  the  seventeenth  centur}^  a.d,,  when  several 


BIBLlOGRArilY 


579 


European  nations  were  beginning  to  take  an  interest  in 
the  trade  of  the  East  and  Far  East,  a demand  for 
information  concerning  oriental  countries  sprang  up, 
and  to  meet  it  the  merchants  and  their  fellow  travellers 
the  missionaries  set  tliemselves  to  compile  accounts  of 
tlie  lands  which  they  had  visited.  Siam  had  her  share 
of  these  attentions.  Early  in  the  century  a book  deal- 
ing largely  with  Siam  by  F.  Caron  and  Joost  Schouten 
(Dutch)  appeared  and  was  eagerly  read,  being  in  fact 
translated  into  English,  French,  German,  Swedish  and 
Latin.  In  1047  An  Historical  Account  of  Siam 
Avritten  by  Jeremie  A-an  Yliet,  also  a Dutchman,  was 
]9roduced  and  aaus  translated  into  French  Avithin  a fcAv 
years  of  its  jAublication.  This  work  contains  a somcAAdiat 
rambling  account  of  contemporary  politics  in  Siam  l)ut 
incidentally  reA^eals  a good  deal  concerning  the  manners 
and  customs  of  the  peo]")le  Avhich  up  to  that  time  had 
neA’er  been  recorded.  References  to  Siam  are  not 
infrequent  in  French  AAuatings  of  this  period,  notal)ly 
the  Helation  cles  Hissions  des  Evesc[ues  Frangois  aux 
Foyaumes  de  Siam,  de  la  Cochinchine  et  da  Tonquin, 
and  other  records  of  the  French  Roman  Catholic 
Missions  to  the  Far  East,  and,  a little  later,  a much  in- 
creased interest  in  the  country  Avas  aroused  in  France 
and  throughout  Europe  by  the  ])olicy  of  Louis  XIV  in 
Further  India  and  a stream  of  literature  on  matters 
Siamese  aaus  set  floAAung  Avhich  has  continued,  Avitli 
more  or  less  regularity,  down  to  the  present  day.  De 
LTsle’s  Relation  Ilistorique  da  royaume  de  Siam,  a 
very  Auluable  but  noAv  little-knoAAui  AA^ork,  a])])eared  at 
Paris  in  1084,  and  in  the  same  year  the  Relation  de 
V Amhassade  de  M de  CJiaumont,  an  envoy  from  Louis 
XIV  to  the  king  of  Siam,  Avas  printed.  A Journal  da 
Voyage  de  Siam  by  the  Abbe  de  Choisy,  a Roman 
Catholic  missionary,  was  piddished  in  1087  and  aayys 
hdloAA^ed  by  the  Voyage  dn  Comte  de  Forhin  d Siam,  the 


580 


SIAM 


Histoire  naturelle  et  politique  du  royaume  de  Siam  of 
Gervaise,  Pere  Tacliard’s  Voyage  de  Siam  and  Second 
Voyage,  and  the  Description  du  Royaume  de  Siam  of  De 
la  Lonbere,  another  French  ambassador,  all  in  1688. 
De  la  Lonbere’s  book  bears  all  the  signs  of  care  and 
accuracy  and  contains  much  that  is  nsefnl  even  at  the 
present  day.  He  avoided  the  political  bias  with  which 
his  contemporaries  were  nsnally  afflicted  and  his  work 
in  consequence,  appealed  to  a wider  circle  than  that  of 
others,  the  book  soon  going  into  further  editions  in 
Paris,  being  also  reprinted  at  Amsterdam  and  trans- 
lated into  English. 

The  Siamese  revolution  of  1688  a.d.,  practically  closed 
the  country  to  the  European  foreigner  for  many  years,  a 
few  missionaries  alone  persisting  there,  and  commerce 
with  the  West  being  entirely  broken  off.  But  the 
stirring  events  which  destroyed  French  influence,  ter- 
minated the  romantic  career  of  Fanlkon  and  inaugurated 
a new  dynasty,  seem  rather  to  have  increased  than 
diminished  European  interest  in  the  country  for,  during 
the  remaining  years  of  the  17th,  and  well  into  the  18th 
century,  the  revolution  and  the  history  of  the  European 
Chief  Minister  of  the  King  of  Siam  formed  the  subjects 
of  many  books.  Of  the  revolution,  accounts  apjjeared 
by  Clinrchill  in  1690  (London),  by  Desfarges,  the 
Admiral  who  had  led  the  Erench  troops  in  Siam  in  1691 
(Amsterdam),  by  Vollant  des  Aerquains  in  1691  (Lille), 
by  Le  Blanc  in  1692  (Lyons),  and  by  Frederik  Haaring 
in  1692  (Leyden).  The  Rise  and  Fall  of  Heer  Con- 
stantyn  Faidkon  {A  Concise  Account),  was  printed  at 
Amsterdam  in  1690,  Pere  d’ Orleans  wrote  an  account  of 
the  hero  in  1754,  and  a panegyric  on  the  same  individual, 
from  the  pen  of  one  Deslandes,  appeared  in  175(>, 
(Amsterdam).  Meanwhile  the  Lettres  Edifiantes  et 
Cuvieuses,  Ecrites  des  Missions  Etrangeres,  being 
volumes  of  the  correspondence  of  the  missionaries 


BIBIJOGllAPHY 


581 


collected  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  were  appearing 
during  the  18th  century  and  these  naturally  contained 
much  interesting  matter  relating  to  Siam  as  well  as  the 
neighhonring  countries  of  Further  India,  the  scenes  of 
the  most  active  missionary  enterprise.  In  the  18th 
century  also,  there  was  published  at  the  Hague,  a work 
by  E.  Kaempfer,  M.  I).,  a German,  dealing  primarily 
with  Japan  but  containing  also  a good  and  trnstwortliy 
account  of  Siam,  Avhicli  ran  through  many  editions  and 
was  translated  into  several  languages,  appearing  in 
Dutch  in  1720,  1733  and  1758,  in  English  in  1729, 
in  French  in  1729,  1731  and  1732,  and  in  German  in 
1777. 

In  1778  Turpin’s  Ilistoire  Civile  et  Nafurelle  du 
Royaume  de  Siam  appeared  at  Paris,  containing  a fairly 
accurate  account  of  the  country  and  its  inhal)itants  and 
evidently  written  with  a view  to  arousing  France  to  a 
resumption  of  her  former  ])olitical  role  in  the  Far  East, 
in  wliich  object  it  failed,  however,  for  being  written  in 
a vein  too  anti-clerical  for  the  period,  it  was  suppressed 
(somewhat  ineffectually  it  is  true)  shortly  after  its 
]»ublication.  In  1777  the  lengthy  and  well-known 
Jlisto}‘ij  of  European  iiuide  ivitli  the  East  and  West 
Indies,  of  the  Abbe  Raynal  containing  many  references 
to  the  commerce  of  Siam,  was  ])ublished  in  Fi-ance  and 
was  soon  translated  into  English  and  in  1823  one  Lanier 
])roduced  a brochure  entitled  lEude  Tlistorique  sur  les 
Relations  de  la  France  et  du  Royaume  de  Siam,  le 
1002  d 17(>3. 

The  Anglo-Dutch  Avars,  the  founding  oE  the  Straits 
Settlements  and  the  first  trouhles  between  the  Hon.  East 
India  Company  and  Purina,  aroused  in  the  oj)ening 
years  of  the  I9th  century,  a more  actiA^e  concern  on  the 
part  of  Great  Britain  in  the  politn^s  of  Further  India 
than  had  hitherto  been  the  case,  and  it  is  from  this 
time  that  English  Avriters  a])])ear  and  indeed  take  a 


582 


SIAM 


prominent  place  in  the  literature  on  Siam.  In  1826  the 
journal  of  Finlayson,  the  surgeon  who  accompanied  the 
first  English  mission  to  Siam,  was  published,  giving 
the  earliest  succinct  account  in  English  at  first  hand  of 
the  country  and  its  inhabitants.  This  was  followed  in 
1828  by  the  publication  of  the  Journal  of  an  Embassy 
to  Siam  by  John  Crawfurd,  the  leader  of  the  mission, 
whose  valuable  information  collected  with  much  care, 
was  marred  in  the  narrating  by  feelings  of  disappoint- 
ment at  the  failure  of  his  undertaking.  In  1829  one 
Tomlin,  probably  a missionary,  published  at  Singapore 
his  Diary  ke])t  on  a Amyage  from  Singapore  to  Siam 
during  a residence  of  nine  months  in  that  country.  The 
Journal  of  Three  Voyages  along  the  coast  of  China,  of 
Gutzlaff,  containing  useful  remarks  on  Siam,  appeared 
about  the  same  time,  and  the  account  by  E.  Roberts, 
United  States  Envoy,  of  his  Embassy  to  the  Eastern 
Courts  of  Cochin  China,  Siam  and  Muscat,  was  brought 
out  at  New  York  in  1837.  Malcolm,  another  American, 
refers  to  Siam  in  his  Travels  in  South  Eastern  Asia, 
(Boston,  1838),  and  many  articles  on,  or  references  to, 
the  coun  try  appeared  in  various  periodicals  of  this  time, 
notably  a paper  by  Captain  Jaines  Loav,  On  the  Govern- 
ment of  Siam,  Asiatic  Researches,  Yol.  xx.,  2nd  part, 
(Calcutta,  1839). 

The  next  book  of  an}"  importance  Avas  D.  E.  Malloch’s 
Siam  ; Some  General  Eemarhs  on  its  Productions, 
published  at  Calcutta  in  1852  and  this  Avas  folloAved  in 
the  same  year  by  J.  A.  Neale’s  Na  rrative  of  a Residence  at 
the  Gayital  of  the  Kingdom  of  Siam,  written  in  a breezy, 
irresponsible  manner  and  crammed  full  of  evident  in- 
accuracies and  exaggerations,  yet  conveying  a A"ivid 
impression  of  the  life  of  European  adventurers  at  the 
Siamese  Court  in  the  earlier  half  of  last  century.  (The 
author  went  to  Siam  on  a pleasure  trip,  entered  the 
service  of  the  navy,  exchanged  into  the  cavalry,  became 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  583 

aide-de-camp  to  the  King,  and  fled  the  country  during 
a cholera  scare.) 

Description  du  Royaume  Thai  on  Siam,  by  Bishop 
Pallegoix,  was  published  in  Paris  in  1(S54,  and  for  many 
years  was  accepted  as  the  most  complete  work  on  Siam, 
serving  as  a mine  in  which  subsequent  writers  delved 
for  information,  more  especially  Bowring,  whose  book 
The  Kingdom  and  People  of  Siam,  appeared  in  1858, 
shortly  after  his  mission  to  Bangkok.  A Romantic 
Biography  called  Phaulcon  the  Adventurer,  by  W.  Dalton,, 
was  published  in  London  in  1862.  Travels  in  the 
Central  Parts  of  Indo-China.  (Siam),  Cambodia,  Laos,  etc., 
the  diaries  of  the  French  traveller  Mouhot,  appeared  in 
London  in  1864  and  in  the  same  year  De  Rosny’s 
Etudes  Asiatiqnes  de  Geograph  ie  et  T llistoire,  with  many 
references  to  Siam,  was  published  in  Paris.  In  1866, 
A Tu'o  Months  Tour  in  Siam,  from  the  pen  of  one 
Thomson,  a missionar}^  was  printed  in  Singapore, 
the  Reisen  in  Siam  im  Jahre  I860,  of  Dr  A.  Bastian, 
a most  excellent  and  erudite  work,  ajipeared  at  Jena 
in  1867,  and  M.  A.  Grehan,  an  ex-consular  olFicial, 
produced  his  work  Le  Royaume  de  Siam,  in  Paris  in 
1869. 

Mrs  Leonowens,  a lady  to  whom  was  entrusted  the 
early  education  of  His  51ajesty  the  late  King,  lirought 
out  a very  interesting  book,  The  English  Govemiess  at 
the  Siamese  Court,  at  Boston  U.S.A.  in  the  year  1870 
and  followed  it  with  The  Romance  of  Siamese  Harem 
Life  in  1873. 

In  1871  The  Wheel  of  the  Law  by  Alabaster 
ap])eared  ; a most  valuable  work,  treating  of  the  religious 
beliefs  of  the  Siamese  and  comprising  a large  amount 
of  information  regarding  national  customs  and  ways 
of  thought.  In  this  year  also,  the  missionary  McDonald 
produced  at  PhiladeljJiia  a liook  called  Siam,  Its 
Government,  Manners,  Customs,  etc.,  a very  excellent 


584 


SIAM 


work  which  though  now  scarce,  is  worthy  of  a front 
place  on  the  shelves  of  a Siamese  library. 

The  year  1873  was  especially  prolific  in  hooks  on 
Siam.  The  record  of  the  great  work  of  Francis  Gamier, 
Voyage'  cV Exploration  en  Indo-Gliine,  containing  much 
new  and  useful  information  concerning  Eastern  Siam, 
and  0‘Fareirs  Siam  an  XXme  Sieele,  a forecast  of  the 
destiny  of  the  State  which  has  not  yet  been  justified 
by  events,  appeared  at  Paris,  while  at  London  and 
New  York  respectively.  The  Land  of  the  White  Elephant 
by  Vincent,  and  Siam,  the  Land  of  the  White  Elephant, 
as  it  teas  and  is,  by  Bacon,  were  published  all  within 
a few  months  of  each  other.  Commander  Loftus  of  the 
Siamese  navy  published  a volume  of  directions  for 
mariners  in  the  Gulf  of  Siam  in  1878.  M.  Ch.  Lemire 
wrote  an  Expose  Chronologique  des  Relations  dii 
Camhodge  avec  le  Siam,  Id Annam  et  La  France,  Avhich 
appeared  at  Paris  in  1879.  In  1880-81  S.  J.  Smith’s 
Extracts  from  Siamese  JLi  story,  Tran  slat  ecFvas  published 
at  Bangkok  and  The  Banghoh  Centennial  from  the  same 
pen,  appeared  in  1882.  In  1884  Carl  Bock’s  Temples  and 
Elephants,  and  Giburt’s  La  Famille  Royale  de  Siam 
were  produced,  and  in  the  following  year  a work 
entitled  Ethnographie  du  Siam,  le  Penple  Siamois  on 
Thai  by  Rosny  Avas  published  at  Paris.  In  1885  a 
Bibliograpliy  of  Siam  Avas  produced  by  SatoAV  before 
the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  Straits  Branch,  and  aaus  after- 
AAoards  reprinted  in  book  form.  This  contained  a A^ery 
complete  list  of  AA^orks  conceriiiiig,  or  having  reference 
to  Siam,  indicatiiig  mucli  labour  of  research  on  the  part 
of  the  com])iler,  and  it  has  frequently  been  drawn  upon 
in  the  coni])ilation  of  subsequent  AA^orks  on  the  countiy, 
including  this  present  volume.  Mary  Cort,  an  American 
missionary  aa4io  had  resided  long  amongst  the  Siamese 
peo])le,  pid)lished  Siam  or  the  Heart  of  Further  India, 
a sympathetic  and  Avell-Avritten  account  of  the  country 


BIBI.IOGRAPHY 


585 


and  its  i^eople,  in  1886,  in  which  year  also  appeared 
Mrs  Grindrod’s  Siam  : a Geographical  Siirveg.  Amongst 
the  Shans,  a work  by  A.  R.  Colqnhoun,  containing 
frequent  references  to,  and  remarks  upon,  Northern 
Siam,  also  appeared  in  1886. 

The  year  1890  saw  tlie  appearance  of  Anderson’s 
English  Intercourse  with  Siam  in  the  17th  Century  and 
Holt  Hallet’s  A Thousand  Miles  on  an  Elephant  in  the 
Shan  States,  two  works  of  much  valne,  each  in  its  peculiar 
way.  Gerini,  a writer  whose  works  should  be  in  the 
possession  of  every  student  of  Siam,  juiblished  The 
Clmlahantamangcda,  or  the  Tonsure  Ceremony  as  per- 
formed in  Siam,  in  1893,  a work  in  the  vernacular  on 
the  Art  of  War  as  practised  in  Siam,  having  shortly 
lU’eceded  it.  In  that  year  also  I)ie  Gescliichte  der 
Siamesen,  by  Conrady,  appeared  at  Leipzig,  and  Prince 
Henry  of  Orleans  gave  to  the  world  an  interesting 
narrative  of  his  travels  in  the  Far  East,  in  the  volnine 
Autour  du  Tonguin  et  Siam,  a work  which  was  printed 
in  English  soon  after  its  first  appearance. 

(Sir)  Heniq-  Norman  ])roduced  his  well-knoAvn  work 
The  Far  East  in  1894,  a considera])le  ]iart  of  which  was 
devoted  to  Siam,  of  Avhich  kingdom  he  had  little  good 
to  say,  viewing  it  with  a curiously  pessimistic  eye  and 
jn'o^fiesying  for  it  an  early  downfall  which  has  fortun- 
ately been  avoided.  In  1896  Xotes  of  a Journey  on 
the  Upper  Mehhong,  Siam,  by  H-  Warington  Smyth,  was 
published  by  the  Royal  Geograjihical  Society,  and  in 
1898  there  ap]>eared  from  the  pen  of  the  same  author, 
Journeys  on  the  Siamese  East  Coast,  and  Eire  years  in 
Siam,  the  last  a record  of  work  and  travel  in  all  ])arts 
of  the  kingdom,  revealing  the  impressions  of  an  accurate 
observer  A\'ith  a broad-minded  ca]>acity  for  sympathizing 
in  thoughts  and  ideals  other  tlian  those  of  the  writer. 
In  this  year,  also,  appeared  The  Kingdom  of  the  Yelloir 
Rohe,  by  E.  Young,  a collection  of  bright  little  sketches 


586 


SIAM 


of  Siamese  manners  and  customs,  more  especially  in 
Bangkok  and  the  suburbs.  Several  editions  of  this 
book  have  been  issued  and  it  still  finds  many  readers 
though,  with  the  very  rapid  development  of  Siam  within 
the  last  decade,  it  is  in  many  respects  out  of  date.  In 

1899  a little  book  entitled  Laos  Folk  Tales,  by 
Katherine  Fleeson,  was  j:)ublished  at  New  York,  being 
a series  of  stories  gathered  by  the  author  during  many 
years’  residence  as  a missionary  in  Northern  Siam.  A 
certain  M.  Yos,  a Belgian  gentleman,  visited  Siam  in 

1900  and  shortl}^  afterwards  issued  a little  book  called 
Croquis  Siamois,  a series  of  lively  and  accurate  sketches 
of  the  everyday  matters  which  met  his  view  during  the 
short  time  of  his  stay  in  Bangkok.  Surveying  and 
Exploring  in  Siam,  b}-  James  McCarthy,  a valuable 
record  of  travel  and  observation  covering  ground  which, 
at  the  time  it  was  made,  was  practically  unknown  to 
Europeans,  was  published  by  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society  in  1902,  the  book  having  for  some  time  previously 
been  in  private  circulation.  In  1902  also,  a Avork  called 
Siam  in  the  Twentieth  Century  by  J.  G.  D.  Campbell, 
Avas  published  by  Arnold  in  London,  the  author  having 
been  for  tA\n  years  in  the  Siamese  GoA-ernment  Service. 
The  book  is  exceedingly  Avell  AA’ritten  but  the  AAudter’s 
kiioAAdedge  of  his  subject  is  perhaps  not  equal  to  that 
AAdiich  lie  has  of  the  English  language. 

The  Etudes  Diverses  of  the  Mission  Pavie,  which 
ap])eared  in  Paris  in  parts  during  the  i)eriod  1892-1902, 
contain  much  extremely  Anluable  information  on  Siamese 
history  and  archaeology,  resulting  from  the  labours  of 
M.  PaAue  and  a band  of  enthusiastic  compatriots.  Two 
AAnrks  named  Le  Siam  Aneien,  one  by  Fournereau 
published  under  the  auspices  of  the  Musee  Guimet  at 
Paris,  and  the  other  by  Commandant  Aymonier  of  the 
French  Service,  appeared  together  in  1903  A\dien,  also, 
Avas  printed  at  Bangkok,  A Brief  History  of  the 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


587 


Roman  Catholic  Mission  in  Siam,  by  a Avriter  aa^io 
concealed  his  identity  niider  the  nom  de  plume  ‘Piny a.’ 
Lemire  reappears  also  in  1903  AAntli  La  France  et  le 
Siam  containing  his  AueAvs  on  the  questions  then  at  issue 
hetAveen  the  tAvo  countries. 

In  1901  The  Kingdom  of  Siam,  to  AAdiich  A^arions 
Avriters  contributed  under  the  able  editorship  of  A. 
Cecil  Carter,  AA*as  jinhlished  in  NeAA'  York  in  connection 
AAnth  the  Siam  exhibit  at  the  St  Ijonis  World’s  Fair. 
CliS^oi'Ms  Exploration  of  Further  India  in  AAdiich  is  to 
he  found  much  concerning  Siam,  also  appeared  in  that 
year. 

An  amusing  book  called  An  Siam  hyE.  Jottrand  and 
a someAAdiat  superficial  one  called  Les  Siamois  Chez  Fax 
by  a certain  M.  Poskin,  AA'ere  published  in  1905,  the 
former  being  the  reflections  of  a Belgian  gentleman  at 
one  time  in  the  serAuce  of  Siam,  and  his  AAufe,  and  the 
latter  a ‘ ])ot-boiler  ’ conijiiled  largely  from  the  Avritings 
of  others. 

In  1900  Gerini  reappears  AAdth  a most  valuable  and 
instrnctiA^e  treatise  on  Sianis  Intercourse  until  China, 
an  erudite  AA^ork  AAdiich  has  done  more  than  almost  any 
other  to  throAv  light  on  the  ancient  history  of  the 
country.  Le  Siam  et  les  Siamois  by  De  La  Jonqniere, 
a truthful  and  concise  little  liook,  Avas  jniblished  in 
Paris  in  1910,  AAdien  a translation  of  Kaeni])fer  by 
Scheuchzer  also  a[)peared.  The  foiirtli  publication  of 
1900  dealing  AAdth  Siam  AA'as  Lotus  Land  by  P.  A. 
Thompson,  formerly  of  the  Siamese  Survey  Department, 
a delightful  book  sliOAving  insight,  sympathy  and  the 
gift  of  observation,  and  to  read  AAdiich  is  nndilnted 
pleasure. 

Die  Landivirtschaft  in  Siam,  liy  H.R.H.  Phra  Ong 
Chao  Dilock,  The  Fearer  and  Farther  East  l)y  ZAA'eener 
and  BroAA'ii  and  Twentieth  Century  Impressions  of  Siam 
by  Messrs  Wright  and  Break  spear  appeared  in  1908. 


588 


SIAM 


The  first  is  an  able  treatise  on  the  rural  and  agricultural 
conditions  of  the  author’s  native  land  ; of  the  second,  a 
small  part  onl}^  is  devoted  to  Siam  ; the  third,  which 
has  been  aptly  termed  Siam  while  you  Wait,  is  an 
admirable  compendium  of  advertisements  with  which  a 
few  crumbs  of  general  information  are  mingled. 


Works  on  tpie  Siamese  Language 

The  list  of  works  on  the  Siamese  language  by  foreigners 
is  not  a long  one.  De  La  Lonbere  was  the  first  writer  on 
the  country  who  gave  any  serious  attention  to  the 
matter.  In  the  year  1810  there  appeared  at  Serampore 
(Mission  Press)  a Comparative  vocahulary  of  the  Burma, 
Malay u and  Thai  Languages,  by  Leyden,  a work  which 
is  now  of  more  value  as  a curiosity  than  as  a guide  to 
learning.  Ca|)tain  Low  published  a Grammar  of  the 
Thai  or  Siamese  La.nguage  in  1828,  and  J.  T.  Jones,  a 
missionary,  produced  his  Brief  Grammatical  Notices  of 
the  Siamese  Language  in  1842.  Bishojo  Pallegoix  in 
1850  ])rinted  a Grammatica  Linguae  Thai  at  Bangkok, 
a really  useful  work,  and  followed  it  in  1854  with  his 
] tictionariuni  Linguae  'Thai  sire  Siamensis,  Interpreta- 
tione  Latina  Gallica  et  Avglica,  a large  volume,  evidently 
the  Avork  of  many  years,  which,  though  perhaps  a little 
out  of  date  now,  is  still  considered  the  best  Siamese 
dictionary  ever  compiled,  and  of  which  a new  edition 
has  rec*ently  been  edited  by  Bishop  Nej.  At  Berlin  in 
in  the  year  1850  there  appeared  Ueher  die  sogenannten 
Jndochinesischen  Sprachen  in sonderh eit  das  Siamesisclie 
by  AV.  Schott,  and  in  1870  Bastian  jmblished 
Sprachrergleichende  Studien  imt  hesonderer  BeriicL- 
sichtigung  der  Indo-Ghinesisclien  Sprachen,  much  of 


SIAMESE  LANGUAGE 


589 


which  dealt  in  a masterlj’  manner  with  the  Siamese 
language.  Other  works  which  liaA^e  appeared  from 
time  to  time  are  Ewald’s  Gramhuitik  dev  T'ai  oder 
Siamesischen  Spraclie,  Lei^^zig  ; Wershoven’s  Lehr  und 
Lesehucli  dev  Siamesischen  Sprache,  Leipzig ; S.  J. 
Smith’s  The  Principles  of  Siamese  Grammar,  Bangkok, 
1889,  and  M‘Farland’s  An  English-Siamese  Pronouncing 
llandhooh . The  last  of  these  was  originally  prej^ared 
by  Dr  W.  H.  MTarland,  one  of  the  iDioneers  of  American 
Presbyterian  Missionary  work  in  Siam,  but  it  has 
recently  been  revised  and  modernised  by  his  son  Dr  S. 
G.  hPFarland,  probably  the  first  authority  amongst 
foreigners  on  the  Siamese  language  as  spoken  at  the 
present  day.  A very  nsefnl  Siamese-English  dictionary 
was  compiled  b}^  E.  B.  Mitchell  in  1892,  bnt  this  is  now 
difficult  to  obtain  and  is  perhaps  not  so  convenient  for 
the  use  of  students  as  is  the  similar  bnt  fuller  and  more 
np  to  date  work  by  MTarland.  In  the  year  1900,  a 
book  entitled  Elements  of  Siamese  Grammar  icitk 
Appendices  was  produced  by  Dr  0.  Frankfurter,  which 
though  bearing  the  comparatively  Iminble  title  of 
Grammar,  is  in  reality  a very  learned  treatise  on  the 
language,  its  construction  and  its  history,  embodying 
the  results  of  many  years  of  close  study  and  unwearying 
research.  AVhile  practically  useless  as  a handbook  for 
the  foreigner  who  may  Avish  to  accpiire  such  knoAvledge 
of  the  language  as  may  be  useful  in  everyday  life,  a 
])urpose  for  Avhich  the  author  indeed  explains  that  his 
Avork  is  not  intended,  this  book  is  one  of  the  highest 
importance  to  anyone  desirous  of  penetrating  to  the 
depths  of  the  subject  and  is  Avithout  doubt  the  most 
A’aluable  contril^ution  to  the  study  of  the  Siamese 
language  Avhich  has  3’et  been  made. 

CartAvriglit’s  Siamese  Grammar  published  in  1905 
(Bangkok)  is  ])robably  the  best  aid  to  learning  the 
language  AAdiich  has  yet  been  produced. 


590 


SIAM 


Periodicals  and  Newspapers 

It  is  impossible  to  enumerate  all  tlie  papers  and  articles 
wliicli  have  appeared  from  time  to  time  in  the  pages  of 
Enroj)ean  magazines  and  other  periodicals  but  mention 
may  be  made  of  The  J ournal  of  the  Indian  Arehi'pelago 
and  Eastern  Asia,  1847-1803,  in  which  frequent  refer- 
ences to  this  country  were  made  ; to  The  Phoenix,  a 
short-lived  magazine  devoted  to  Eastern  subjects,  which 
ran  through  a few  years  of  the  early  seventies  of  the 
19th  century,  and  in  which  some  interesting  papers  on 
Siamese  literature  wdll  be  found  ; to  the  J ournal  of  the 
Straits  Branch  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  amongst  the 
numerous  volumes  of  which  are  included  papers  by 
Leyden  on  Siamese  literature,  by  Satow  on  Biblio- 
graphy, by  Dakin  on  travels  in  Eastern  Siam,  by  Flower 
on  the  Natural  Llistory  of  the  country  and  many  others. 
In  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Arts,  also,  there 
are  occasional  papers  on  various  Siamese  subjects.  The 
Journal  of  the  Siam  Societ^q  which  began  its  career  in 
1902,  contains  many  very  interesting  contributions  from 
both  Siamese  and  Europeans,  the  latter  of  various 
nationality,  dealing  Avith  the  history,  laws,  customs, 
superstitions  and  literature  of  the  country.  It  is  pub- 
lished at  Bangkok  in  English,  and  is  a veritable  mine 
of  information  to  anyone  interested  in  the  country.  So 
far  back  as  1858,  annual  compilations  of  the  Directory 
order  have  been  ]Dublished  at  Bangkok  in  the  English 
Language.  The  first  of  these  Avas  The  Bangkok  Calendar 
produced  by  Mr  Bradley  Avhose  descendants  still  carry 
on  the  pulilisliing  house  Avhich  he  started  on  the  banks 
of  the  Menani  Chao  Phaya.  The  Calendar  continued 
until  1873.  In  1869,  S.  J.  Smith  printed  the  first 
numl^er  of  his  Siam  Repositorg,  AAdiich  appeared  annually 
mitil  1874.  There  then  occurred  a gap  of  four  years,  at 


PERIODICALS 


591 


the  end  of  which  time  the  Repository  reapjieared  under 
the  title  The  Bangkok  Directory,  and  this  was  conducted 
hy  S.  J.  Smith  until  well  on  in  the  eighties,  when  it  was 
taken  over  hy  the  Bangkok  Times  Press,  since  when  it 
has  appeared,  with  constantly  increasing  hulk  and  value, 
until  at  the  present  day  it  consists  not  only  of  a very 
complete  directory  for  the  country,  but  also  of  a mass 
of  historical,  fiscal  and  general  information  and  statistics 
which  make  it  a most  useful  and  instructive  volume. 
The  Siam  Directory,  which  made  its  first  appearance  a 
few  years,  two  or  three  years  ago,  is  modelled  on  the 
lines  of  the  Bangkok  Directory,  and  is  also  a useful 
volume. 

Journalism  is  at  present  represented  in  Siam  hy  three 
daily  papers,  the  Bangkok  Times,  the  Siam  Observer 
and  the  Bangkok  Daily  Mail,  all  printed  in  English  and 
Siamese,  and  there  is  also  a Siamo-Chinese  paper  printed 
in  Siamese  and  Chinese.  The  Government  Gazette, 
which  is  published  Aveekly  in  Siamese,  chronicles  the 
doings  of  the  Court,  the  promotions,  transfers  etc.,  of 
officers  in  Government  service  and  is  the  vehicle  for  the 
official  promulgation  of  new  laws,  orders  and  notifica- 
tions. Vernacular  newspapers  and  magazines  have  been 
brought  out  from  time  to  time  by  private  enterprise  but 
owing  to  lack  of  support,  and  sometimes  to  defective 
management  have  invarialily  collapsed  after  a short  and 
precarious  existence. 


S lAM 


APPENDIX 


LIST  OF  MAMMALS 


Enylisli 

Siamese 

Name  of  Order,  genus  or  spec 

Ape 

Kang 

Hylobates  sp. 

Armadillo  see  pangolin 

Ass 

La 

Equus  asinus 

Bat 

Khang  khao,  kuk  nu 

Cheiroptera  sp. 

Bear 

MI 

Ursus  malayanus 

‘ Bison  ” gaur 

Ngoa  kathing 

Bos  gaurus 

Bufifaio 

Kwai,  krabeu 

Bos  bubal  us 

Buffalo  (wild) 

Kwai  pian 

Felis  domesticus 

Cat 

Meao 

Cat  (wild 

Meao  pa 

Felis  sp. 

‘ Cat  ” (so  called  ‘ bam- 

I ne 

Paradoxurus 

boo’)  or  palm  civet 

Cat  (leopard-) 

Seua  dao 

Felis  bengalensis 

Cat  (fishing-) 

Seua  pla 

Felis  viverrina 

Civet-cat 

Chamot 

Viverra  sp. 

‘ Cow  ’ 

Ngoa 

Bos  indicus 

“ Cow  ” (wild) 

Ngoa  pa 

Bos  sondaicus 

Deer  (barking) 

I keng 

Cervulus  muntjac 

Deer  (brow-antler) 

Lamang 

Cervus  eldi 

Deer  (hog-) 

Kwang 

Cervus  porcinus 

Deer  (sambar) 

Neua 

Cervus  hippelephas 

Deer  (so-called  ‘musk  ) Neua  tarai 

Deer  (Schombergk’s) 

Chaman 

Cervus  schombergki 

Deer(mouse-)ChevrolamKachoing 

Tragulus  sp. 

Dog 

Ma 

Canis  familiaris 

Dog  (wild) 

Ma  ching  chok 

Canis  sumatranus 
C.  rutilans 

Dolphin 

Pla  kaho 

Delphinus  sp. 

Dugong 

Mu  chale,  du}  ong 

PJalicore  dugong 

Elephant 

Chang 

Pilephas  indicus 

Elephant  (white) 

Chang  pheuak 

,, 

,,  (tuskless) 

Chang  sitau 

5 ? ? 

Flying  fox 

Kang  koa 

Ikeropus  eduiis 

Gibbon 

Chani 

Hylobate  spp. 

59"^ 


2 P 


APPENDIX 


Siamese 

Pha 

Liang  pa 
Kra  tai 
Mu 

Mu  pa 
Ma 

Ma  nai 

Ling  lorn 
Seua  tao 
I ne 
Tun 

Chamot.  phang  phawn 
Ling 

Ling  sen 
Makata 
Nu  lek 
Nu  ring 
Nu  phuk 
Lah 

Chamot  chieng 
Nu  pi 

Nu  tong  khao 
Nak 

Klet  niin 

Men 

Nu 

An  (pron.  an) 

Rat 

Ka 

Ka  rank 
Ka  tii 

Seua 
Pla  wan 


Nauie  of  Order,  genus  or  species 
Capra  sp. 

Nemorrhaedus  sp. 

Lepus  peguensis 
Sus  sp. 

>? 

Equus  caballus 
Canis  aureus 
Galeopithecus  volans 
Nycticebus  tarJigradus 
Felis  pardus 
Helictis  personata 
d'alpa  sp. 

Herpestes  spp. 

Macacus  and  Semno- 
pithecus  spp. 

? J 

Mus  sp. 

Crocidura  sp. 

Mus  sp. 

Equus  asinus 
Crocidura  sp. 

Mus  concolor 
Lutra  sp. 

Manis  javanica 
Hystrix  hirsutirostris 
Mus  sp. 

Rhizomys  babius 
Rhinoceros  spp. 

Ovis  spp. 

Sciurus  sp. 

d'apirus  malayanus 
Felis  tigris 
Balaena 


594 

English 

Goat 

Goat-antelope  (serow) 

Hare 

Hog 

Hog  (wild) 

Horse 

Jackal 

Lemur  (flying) 

Lemur  (sloth) 
Leopard  | 

Marten  (so  called) 
Mole 

Mongoose 

Monkey 

Monkey  (red  face) 
Mouse 

Mouse  (shrew) 

Mouse  (field) 

Mule 
Musk -rat 

5 

Otter 

Tangolin 

Porcupine 

Rat 

Rat  (bamboo) 
Rhinoceros 
Sheep 
Scjuirrel 

Tquirrel  (white) 

Tapir 

Tiger 

Whale 


Adjutant 
B ibbler 
Barbet 

Bittern 

Bulbil 

Coot 

Cormorant 

Coucal  Crow-pheasant 


BIRDS 

Nok  karien 
Nok  paradok 
Nok  kawow 
Nok  kawow  lai 
Nok  yangsai 
N ok  kang  seu 
Nok  kwak 
Nok  kaut 
Ka  nam 
Nok  put 


Leptoptilus  argala 
Garrulax 

Cyanops  hodgsonii 
Cyanops  sp 
Botaurus  spp. 
Criniger  griseiceps 
Fulica  spp. 

Phalacrocorax  carbo 
Centropus  sinensis 


APPENDIX 


595 


English 

Siennese.  N(i7ue  of  Oi'dcv,  gemis  or  spet 

Crane 

Nok  ikong 

Dissura  episcopus 

,,  (sarus) 
Crow 

Nok  ka 

,,  sarus 

Corvus  insolens 

Cuckoo 

Nok  khet  tow  {or  tao) 

Cuculus  micropterus 

Dove 

Nok  khao  yai 

Turtur  sp. 

9 9 ' 5 9 

,,  (red) 

Nok  khao  fai 

,,  (small  Javanese) 

Nok  khao  chawa 

9 9 9 9 

,,  (white) 

Nok  khao  khek 

9 9 9 9 

9 9 

Nok  khaokiow 

9 9 9 9 

Drongo 

Nok  seng  seow 

Dicrurus 

Duck 

Pet 

Anatidae  spp. 

9 

Duck  (wild) 

Pet  ngaup 

Duck  (brahmany) 

Pet  tate  {or  thet) 

9 9 

Eagle 

Nok  inthri 

Aquilinae  sp. 

Eagle  (fishing) 

Nok  irah 

Halietidae  sp. 

Egret  (brown) 

Nok  yang  deng 

Bubulcus  sp. 

9 9 9 9 

Egret  (white) 

Nok  yang  ton 

Egret  (lesser  white) 

Nok  yang  kin  pling 

9 9 9 9 

Egret  (black  winged) 

Nok  yang  rank 

Falcon 

Nok  yeao  nok  khao 

FAlconidae  spp. 

Finches 

Nok  krachok 

F’asseridae  spp. 

Flamingo 

Francolin 

Nok  dauk  bua 
Nok  k rath  a 

Francolinus  sinensis 

Geese 

Flan 

Anatidae  sp. 

Guinea  fowl 

Kai  tank 

Numidinae  spp. 

Gulls 

Nok  saun  hoi 

Laridae  spp. 

9 9 

9 9 

Nok  nang  nun 

Hawk 

Nok  yeao  takrai 

Milvus  ictinus 

Hawk  (so  called  fishing)  Nok  awk 

Pandion  haliaetus 

or  osprey 
Heron 

Nok  kwaak  (or  kwak) 

Ardea  sp. 

Heron 

Nok  kasa 

Heron 

Nok  kasa  fai 

9 9 9 9 

Horn  bill  (great) 

Nok  nguak 

Dichoceros  bicornis 

Hornbill  (lesser) 

Nok  katao 

iknthrachoceros  al 

Ibis 

Nok  seng  seao 

rostris 

Ardea  graptocephalus 

Jungle  fowl 

Kai  na 

Gallus  bankiva 

Kingfisher 

Nok  tachap 

Alcedo  bengalensis 

Kingfisher  (blue) 

Nok  kranai 

Alcedo  sp. 

Kingfisher  (pied) 

Nok  kraten 

Ceyx  rudis 

Kite 

Nok  yeao 

Haliaster  sp. 

Martin 

Nok  iang 

Hirundo 

Mynah 

Nok  khun  thong 

Gracula  spp. 

Night-jar 

Chang  tong 

Caprimulgus  spp. 

Oriole  or  mango -bird 

Nok  kamin  siang  on 

Oriolus  melanocephali 

Owl 

Nok  huk 

Strigidae  sp. 

Nok  kuk 

9 9 9 9 

9 9 

Nok  pi 

9 9 9 ' 

596 


APPENDIX 


English 

Siamese  Name  of  Order,  genus  or  species 

Owl 

Nok  kow  meao 

Strigidae  sp. 

J5 

Nok  sek 

9 9 9 9 

Parrakeet  (varieties  of theNok  kratoa 

Palaeornis  sp. 

rose-ringed) 

9 ? J > 

Nok  keao 

9 9 9 9 

9 ' 3 > 

Nok  nori 

9 9 9 9 

9 5 9 3 

Nok  kaling 

9 9 9 9 

Loriculus  sp. 

,,  lorikeet 

Nok  khao  mong 

Pea-fowl 

Nok  yung 

Pavo  muticus 

Pelican 

Nok  krathung 

Pelicanus  javanicus 

Pheasant  (fireback) 

Kai  fa 

Phasianus  euplocomus 

,,  (argus) 

Nok  pang  rank 

,,  argusianus 

,,  (peacock) 

Phayalau 

,,  polyplectron 

Pigeon 

Nok  phi  rap 

Columbidae  sp. 

Pigeon  (green) 

Nok  phlow  {or  phlao) 

Treron  sp. 

Pigeon  (imperial) 

Nok  phirap  luang 

Carpophaga  coelestis 

Plover  (carbuncled) 

Ti  ti  tu 

Holopterus  ventrilis 

Plover  (golden) 

Nok  som  thong 

Charadrius  sp. 

Quail 

Nok  kum 

Pintado 

Raven 

Ika 

Corvus  corax 

Rice-bird 

.Nok  krachap 

Roller  or  blue  jay 

Nok  takap 

Coracias  affinis 

Sandpiper 

Nok  ikoi 

Totaninae  sp. 

Seagull 

Nok  nang  nom 

Laridae  spp. 

Snipe 

Nok  pakscm 

Gailinago  stenura 

Sparrow  (Indian) 

Nok  krachok 

Passer  indicus 

Sparrow  (tree) 

Nok  krachok 

,,  montanus 

Sparrow  (^hedge) 

Nok  krachok  ki  kwai 

Accentor  sp. 

Starling 

Nok  praut 

Sturnus  sp. 

9 9 

Nok  praut  hoa  son 

9 9 

Swallow 

Nok  nang  eng 

Hirundo  sp. 

Swallow  (edible  nest) 

Nok  i an 

Collocalia  sp. 

S Wlft 

Nok  nang  eng  dam 

Cyp.selus  sp. 

Tailor-bird 

Nok  krachip 

Orthotomus  sartorius 

Tailor-bird  (lesser) 

Nok  krachip  suan 

9 9 

Teal  (whistling) 

Pet  nam 

Querquedula  sp. 

,,  (cotton) 

Nok  kap  kaa 

9 9 

Turdus  sp. 

Thrush 

Nok  kralang 

Turkey 

Kai  nguang 

Meleagris  sp. 

Vulture 

Nok  reng  or  ireng 

Pseudogyps  bengalensis 

Wagtail 

Nok  kingkrong 

Motacilla  sp. 

Water-hen 

Kai  nam 

Gallinula  sp. 

Weaverbird 

Nok  kachap 

Ploceus  baya 

Woodcock 

Nok  ka  {or  ka) 

Scolopax  sp. 

Woodpecker 

Nok  h oak  wan 

Tiga  sp. 

REPTILES,  BATRACIlIAl 

XS,  ETC. 

Blind -worm 

Ngu  din 

Typhlops  braminus 

Chamaeleon  (so-called) 

Montok 

Calotes  sp. 

APPENDIX 


597 


Name  of  Order,  ge)}us  or  s])ecies 


English 

Crocodile 

,,  horned 


Frog 

„ (bull) 

,,  (amphibian) 

,,  (green) 

Monitor 
Lizards  gecko 
,,  large  gecko 
,,  (garden) 

,,  (grass) 

Skink 

Snake  (cobra) 

,,  (rat) 

,,  (tree) 

,,  (water) 

,,  (jumping) 

,,  (rock) 

,,  (carpet) 

„ (green) 

,,  (green  viper) 

,,  (hamadryad) 

,,  (singing) 

, (Russell’s  viper) 
,,  (krait) 

,,  (python) 

,,  (so-called 
‘ footed  ’ ) 

Toad 

Tortoise 


Sia7nese 

Chorakhe  or  takhe 

Takhong 

Takaut 

Kop 

Kop  chak 
Kop  pow  {or  pao) 
Eung  ang 
Phat 
Khuat 

Hia  or  cha  koat 
Ching  chok 
Tokay  {or  Tukkii) 
King  ka 
Ching  len 
Ya 

Ngu  hao  maw 
Ngu  hao  talan 
Ngu  sai  man  phra  in 
Ngu  pla 

Ngu  khwang  khawn 
Ngu  chong  ang 
Ngu  ngot 
Ngu  khio 

Ngu  khio  hang  mai 
Ngu  hao  talan 
Ngu  ph!  keo 
Ngu  hao  '"ai 
Ngu  klong 
Ngu  leuam 
Ngu  tin 


Crocodilus  porosus 
” . 

Crocodilus  siamensis 
' Ranidae  spp. 

Rana  tigrina 
,,  sp. 

„ sp. 

Varan  us  sp 
Hemidactylus  sp. 

Gecko  verticillatus 
Various  agamidae 

Scincus  sp. 

Naia  tripudians 
Zaminis  mucosus 
Dipsadomorphus  drj  as- 
Hypistas  hydrinus 
Homalopsis  spp. 
Psammodynastes 
Lycodon  sp. 

Dryophiis  sp. 

Lachesis  sp. 

Naja  sp. 

Vipera  russelli 
Bungarus  fasciatus 
Python  reticulatus 
Ichthiophis  glutinosa 

Bufo  sp. 

Testudo 

,,  elongata 
, , sp. 

Chitra  indica 
Chelonia  virigata 


Khang  khok 
Tao  na 

,,  Tao  siping 

Turtle  Kriu,  tao 

,,  (longnecked  river)Taphap  nam 
,,  (sea)  Tao  charamet 


Archer  fish 
Carps  (barbel) 
(crappie) 

(red  ,,  ) 

(black  ,,  ) 

(white  ,,  ) 

(speckled  crappie) 


LIST  OF  FISHES 

Pla  seua 
Pla  ka  {or  ka) 

Pla  kapong 
Pla  kapong  deng 
Pla  kapong  dam 
Pla  kapong  khao 
Pla  kapong  sem 


Toxotes  jaculator 
Cyprinidce,  barbus  sp. 
,,  sp 


598 

EucjUsh 


Cat  fishes 


Conger  eel 

Eel 

Fighting  fish 


Flat  fishes 

Flying  fish 
Globe  fish 
Goby 

Mud-skipper 

Mullet 

Narwhal 
Pilchard 
Saw  fish 
^ Scomberesox  ’ 


Shark 

,,  (dogfish) 

,,  (spotted) 

,,  (hammerhead) 
Skates  & Rays 

,,  (large 
Skate) 

,,  (thorn- 

back) 

Snake-heads,  spoon  fish 


‘ Squamipen ’ 
Sting  ray 


APPENDIX 

Siamese  N 

rPla  kieng 
Pla  kot 

Pla  kang  penan 
- Pla  duk 
Pla  intri  chang 
Pla  intri  lai  sao 
^Pla  intri  bang 
Pla  lai 

Pla  kam  puat 
Pla  kat 
r Pla  tabit  n 
j Pla  lin  na  {or  ma) 
h Pla  I sup 
V.  Pla  charamet 
Pla  ka  pen 

Pla  pak  pow  {or  pao) 
Pla  pu 
Pla  tin 
Pla  chelat 
. Pla  kabauk  toh 
Pla  kabauk  lek 
Phayun 
Pla  tu 
Pla  chanak 
Pla  katong  how 
{or  krathung  hao) 
Pla  kem 
Pla  chalam  paa 
Pla  chalam  nu 
Pla  chalam  thong 
Pla  chalam  tabien 
Pla  kaben  pak  laam 
Pla  kaben  chai  dong 

Pla  kaben  kanun 

Pla  chawn 
Pla  kang 
Pla  kasang 
Pla  chang  yiep 
Pla  kaben  lambit 


ame  of  Order,  genus  or  species 

Siluridge  sp. 

5 f 


Muraenidae  sp. 

55  55 

Betta  pugnax 
Pleuronectidae  spp. 


Exocoetus  sp. 
Gymnodontes  tetrodor. 
Gobiidae 
Periophthalmus 
Notopteridae  sp 
Mugillidae 

5 ? 

Monoden  sp. 

Clupeidae 
Pristidae  sp. 

Scombresocidae  (hemi- 
ramphus) 

5 5^  ? 5 

Carcharidae 

5 5 
5 5 

Zygoena  malleus 
Kajidae  sp. 

>»  ?> 

Ophiocephalidae  sp. 

5 9 

95  >5 

Squamipennes  spp. 
Trygonidae  sp. 


INVERTEBRATE  ANIMAL  INSECTS,  ETC. 


Ant 

,,  (karinga) 

,,  (small  red) 
Ant  (white) 


Mot  le 
Mot  tamoi 
Kipbin 
Pluak 


Formicidae  spp. 

5 5 
59 

Termes  lucifugus 


APPENDIX 


599 


English 
Atlas  moth 
Bcche-de-mer 
Bee 

,,  (dammar) 

,,  (carpenter) 
Beetle 

,,  (long  horned) 
„ (green) 
Bluebottle  fly 
Bug 

Butterfly 

Centipede 

Cicada 

Cockroach 

Conch  shell 
Coral  (black) 

Cowry 

Crab 

Crayfish 

Cricket 

Cuttlefish 

Dragon  fly 

Earwig 

Firefly 

Flea 

Gadfly 

Gnat 

9 ? 

Grasshopper 
Hornet 
House  fly 
King  crab 
Leech 
Louse 


Mantis 

Medusa  (jellyfish) 
Midge 

Mole  cricket 
Mosquito 
Moth 
Mussel 

,,  (large) 
Oyster 
Prawn 


Siamese  A' 

Phi  seua  chang 

Sarai 

Pheung 

Min 

Pham  on 
Maleng  thu 
Duang  hum 
Maleng  thap 
Maleng  wan 
Mang  huna 
Phi  seua 
Ta  khap 
Rite 

Mamung 
Maleng  sap 
Kap 

Kapa  bang  ha 
Bia 

Pio  ; pu  chale  ; krak 
Kolai 

Changrit  ; challik. 

Da  nam 
Pla  meuk 
Meng  paw 
Meng  kharieng 
'Hing  hoi 
Mat 
Leuap 

Maleng  now  {or  nao) 

Ran 

Rin 

Re  rai 

Tan 

Maleng  wi 
Meng  da 

Fling  ; pling  chale 

Rai 

Len 

Hao 

Chale  racham 
Meng  kraphrun 
Sut 

Mengkachon 
Yung 
Phi  seua 
Hoi 

Hoi  kraphong 
Hoi  irom 
Rung 


ame  of  Order,  germs  or  species 

Attacus  atlas 
Holothuridae 
Apis  sp. 

9 ? 9 9 

9 9 9 5 

Scarabaeus  sp. 
Longicornis  sp. 

Buprestii  sp. 

Musca  sp. 

Cimex  lectularis 

Lepidoptera 

Scolopendridae 

Cicadidae 

Blattidae 

Triton 
Gorgonidae 
Cypraea  sp. 
n Brachyura 
Macrura 
Gryllidae 
Octopus  sp. 

. ” _ 9 9 

Libellulidae 
Euplexopteridae 
Lampyridae  spp. 

Pulex  sp. 

Tabanidae  sp. 

Simuliidae  sp. 

9 9 
9 9 

Acridiidae  sp. 

Vespa  sp. 

Musca  sp. 

Limulus  moluccanus 
Hirudo  sp. 

Pediculina  sp. 

9 9 9 9 

9 9 9 ' 

Mantis  sp. 

IMedusa  sp. 

Simuliidae 
Gryllidae 
Culicidae 
Lepidoptera 
Unio  sp. 

9 9 9 9 

Ostraea  sp. 

Macrura  sp. 


APPENDIX 


600 


English 
Pearl  oyster 
Scorpion 


Shellfish 

Shrimp 

Silkworm 

Snail 

Spider 

9 J 

Sticklac  insect 
Tapeworm 
Teredo 
Wasp 

Weevil  (rice) 
Worm 


Siamese 

Name  of  Order,  genus 

Muk  da  {or  ta) 

Ostraea  sp. 

Prisachik 

Scorpio  sp. 

Wichatika 

55  5 5 

Maleng  fang 

5 5 5 5 

Meng  pong 

55  5 5 

Krarang 

Kung  foi 

Macrura  sp. 

Nawn  mai 

Antherea  sp. 

Hoi  kong 

Helicidae 

Maleng  mum 

Arachnida  spp. 

Luta 

Ki  krang 

Coccus  lacca 

Payat 

Tenia  solium 

Prieng 

Teredo  sp. 

Tan 

Vespa  sp 

Plia 

Curculionidae 

Nawn 

Lumbricidae 

LIST  OF  COMMON  TREES  AND  PLANTS 


Abrus 

Almond-tree 

Amaranthe 

Areca 

Arrov/root 

Bael 

Bamboo 

,,  (dwarf) 

,,  (short  jointed) 

5 > 

,,  (smooth) 

,,  (long  jointed, 
used  for  blow-pipes) 
Banana 
Banyan 
Bean 

‘ Betel ’-vine 
Bhang 
Blackwood 
Boh-tree  (pipul) 
Boxwood 

Breadfruit  tree 
Brinjal  or  egg|plant 
,, ' (wild) 


Takram  or  makram 
Ton  krabauk 
Kammagi 
Mak 

Rak  samsip 
Matom 
Mai  pai 

Mai  ruak 
Mai  pai  pa 
Mai  si  suk 
Mai  liang 
Mai  sang 

Kleui 

Ton  mai  chai 

Toa 

Phlu 

Kanja 

Ton  mai  dam 
Ton  pho 
Ton  kaao 
Mai  put 

Ton  sakhi  {or  sake) 
Ma  khua  khaw 
Ma  ik 


Abrus  precatorius 
Terminalia  catappa 
Amarantus  oleraceus 
Areca  catechu 
Maranta  arundinacea 
Agathotes  chirayta 
Bambusa  sp.aA<?  Dendro 
calamus  sp. 

? > 55 

5 5 5 5 

5 5 5 5 

5 5 M 

5 5 5 5 

Musa  sapientum 
Ficus  indica 
Phosphocarpus  sp. 
Piperaceae  sp. 

Cannabis  sativa 
Dalbergia  latifolia 
Ficus  religiosa 
Buxus  sinensis 

Artocarpus  sp. 

Solanum  melongena 
ferox 


55 


APPENDIX 


601 


English 

Cactus 

Camphor  tree 

Cane  rattan 

Caoutchouc  creeper 

Capsicum 

Cardamom 

Castor-oil  plant 

Champac 

Chestnut 

Cinnamon 

Clove 

Cockscomb 
Coriander 
Cotton 
,,  (tree) 

5? 

Cotton-tree 

Cow-itch 

Croton 

Croton-oil  plant 
Cucumber 

Custard  apple 

,,  ,,  (bullock’s 

heart) 

Cutch 
Date  palm 
Datura 

Durian 

Duckweed 

Earthnut  (peanut) 

Entada  creeper 

Ebony 

Eugenia 

Euphorbia 

Fennel 

Ferns 

Fig 

Fir-tree 

Fungi 

Gallnut  tree 
Gamboge  tree 
Gardenia 
Garlic 
Ginger 

Gourd  (white  pumpkin) 

J 5 


Siamese  Name  of  Order,  genus  or  sj^ecies 

Krabom  pet  Cereus  hexagonus 

Ton  karabun  Blumea  sp. 

Wai  Calamus  sp. 

Katang  ka  tiew  {or  katiu)  Echii  es  sp. 


Phnk 
Krawan 
Tan  lahung 
Ton  champa 
Khaolat 
Op  chem 
Kanpalu 
Ton  ngaun  kai 
Ton  pakcher  (?) 
Ton  Di 
Ton  nun 
Ton  ngiu 
Chimphali 
Ma  mui 
Ton  kasawn 
Ton  salaut 
Teng  kwa 
Pak  chilow 
Noi  na 
Noi  nong 


Capsicum  sp. 

Alpinia  sp. 

Ricinus  communis 
Michelia  champaca 
Castanea  sp. 
Cinnamomum  sp. 
Eugenia  caryophyllata 
Celosia  sp. 

Coriandrum  sp. 
Gossypium  sp. 

Bombax  sp. 


Musuna  pruriens 
Croton  sp. 
Croton  tiglium 
Cucumis  sp. 

) 5 9 ) 

Anona  reticulata 
,,  sp. 


Shiziet 
Inthaphalam 
Ton  krabean 
,,  lamphong 
Ton  thurien 
Chauk 
Toa  lisong 
Ton  sabar 
Ton  maklua 
Ton  champu 
Ton  salat  dai 
Phak  chi 
Phak  kawt 
Ton  ma  deua 
Ton  cham  cha 
Ilet 

Ton  samaw 
Ton  ma  dan 
Ton  dauk  chin 
Ka  thiem 
Khing 
Fak  thong 
Buap 
Nam  tao 


Acacia  cateceu  and  spp- 
Phoenix  dactylifera 
Datura  talula 

,,  stramonium 
Durio  zibethinus 
Lemna  spp. 

Arachis  hypogaea 
Entada  scandens 

Eugenia  sp. 

Euphorbia  sp. 

Nigella  sati^a 
Filices 
Ficus  sp. 

Finus  sp. 

Fungi 

Garcinia  Hanburyii 
Gardenia  coronaria 
Allium  sativum 
Zingiber  officinale 
Benincasa  cerifera 
,,  sp. 

Lagenaria  vulgaris 


(bottle) 


602 

APPENDIX 

EiKjU.sh 

Siamese  'Same  of  Order,  genus  or  specie 

Gourd  (.snake-) 

Teng  thai 

Trichosanthes  sp. 

Gram 

Toa  bengala 

Phaseolus  sp. 

Grass 

Ya 

Gramineae 

,,  (elephant) 

Ton  aw 

,, 

,,  (reed) 

Va  kem  ; krachut 

9 J 

Guava 

Ton  farang 

Psidium  sp. 

Gum  benzoin 

Ton  k an yam 

Styrax  sp. 

Gum-kino 

Tonmai  padu 

Pterocarpus  sp. 

Hemp,  bhang 

Pan 

Cannabis  sativa 

Hibiscus 

Ton  chaba 

Hibiscus  sp. 

Hopea 

Ton  mai  takh-ien 

Hopea  odorata 

Indigo 

Khram 

Indigofera  tinctoria 

Ironwood 

Inga  xylocarpa 

Ixora 

Ton  kem 

Ixora  sp. 

Jackfruit  tree 

Ton  khanun  or  Kanon 

Artocarpus  integrifolia 

Jasmine 

Mali 

Jasminum  sambac 

? 9 

Jujube  tree 

Ladah 

,,  sp. 

Ton  bosa 

Ziziphus  jujuba 

Lagerstroemia 

Ton  tabak 

L.  spp. 

Langsat 

Ton  langsat 

Lansium  domesticum 

Leek 

Ivuchai 

Allium  sp. 

Lemon 

Ton  makrut 

Citrus  sp. 

Ton  lamyai 

, , longanum 

? > 

Ton  mangoa 

>5 

Lemon  grass 

Yah  hawm 

Andropogon  schoenaU' 

Lettuce 

Phak  kat  hawn 

thus 

Lichee 

Ton  linchi 

Nephelium  litch 

Lime 

Ton  manao 

Citrus 

Lotus  (white) 

Bua  phan 

Nymphaea  sp. 

,,  (red) 

Hua  penan 

Alsokumut,  chuk,  kuse, 
kosom,  kokamut, 

kokasok,  etc 

9 9 9 9 

Lotus  (sacred  bean) 

Dauk  bua,  luang 

Nelumbium  speciosum 

Phrathum,  chongkon,  etc. 

Malay  rose-apple 

Champu 

Eugenia  sp. 

Magnolia 

Ton  champa-champi 

Magnoliaceae 

Maize 

Khao  phot 

Zea  mais 

Mango 

I'on  mamuang 

Mangifera  indica 

Mango  steen 

Ton  mangkhut 

Garcinia  mangostana 

Mangrove 

Ton  mai  sake 

Rhizophoraceae  spp. 

Marigold 

Dao  reuang 

Calendula  officinalis 

Melon 

Teng  tai 

Cucumis  melo 

Melon  (water) 

Teng  mo,  Teng 
phap 

Citrullus  spp. 

Millet 

Nga  dam 

Panicum  sp 

Mimosa  (sensitive  plan 

,t)  Ton  kreteup 

Mimosa  pudica 

Mint 

Serana 

Mentha  sp. 

English 

Moon-flower 

Mulberry 

Mustard 

Nipa 

Nutmeg 

Nux  vomica 

‘ Olive  ’ or  Plog-plum 

Onion 

Orange 

Orchids 

Palm  (betel) 

,,  (palmyra) 

Palm  (date) 

,,  (coconut) 

,,  (sago) 

,,  (book) 

,,  (talipot) 

Papaya 

Papermaking  tree 
Parsley 
Passion  flower 
Pepper 

(long) 
Pineapple 
‘ Plum  ’ 

Poinciana 

Pomegranate 

Poppy 

Potato 

Potato  (sweet) 

Radish 
Rambutan 
" Raspberry  ’ 

Rice  (plant) 

,,  (paddy) 

,,  (husked) 

,,  (cooked) 

Rose 

Roseapple  jambosa 

Rosewood 

Sandalwood 

Saflfron 

Sapan  wood 

Screwpine 

Sesamum 

Shaddock  (pummelo) 

Shorea 

Soapnut 


APPENDIX  603 


Siamese  Name  of  Order,  genus  or  sjiecies 


Dauk  ban  yen 
Ton  mon 
Bai  pak  kat 
Ton  chak 
Ton  chan 
Ton  be  chi 
Ton  ma  kauk 
Hua  hawm 
Som 

Kleui  mai 
Ton  mak 
Ton  tan 
Inthapalam 
Ton  ma  phrao 
Ton  saku 
Ton  lahu 
Ton  pipet 
Ton  malako 
Ton  koi 

Phak  silow  (cr  chilao) 

Phrik  lai 

Phrik  hang 

Separot 

Ton  maprang 

Ton  hang  nokyung 

Ton  thapthin 

Dauk  fin 

Man  farang 

Man  thet 

Man  nok 

Hoa  kat 

Ton  ngau 

Ton  lamot  farang 

Ton  khao 

Khao  pheuak 

Khao  san 

Khao 

Ton  kulap 

Ton  chain pu 

Ton  mai  pil  yung 

Ton  chan 

Faran 

Ton  mai  fang 
Lam  chieak 
Nga 
Som  oh 

Ton  mai  inthanin 
Makam  dikwai 


Jalapa  sp. 

Morus  sp. 

Brassica  sp. 

Nipa  fruticans 
Myristica  fragrans 
Strychnos  sp. 

Spondias  mangifera 
Allium  sp. 

Citrus  spp. 

Orchidaceae 
Areca  catechu 
Borassus  flabellifer 
Phoenix  dactylifera 
Cocos  nucifera 
Corypha  sp. 

? 9 ? 9 

,,  umbraculifera 

Carica  papaya 
Trophis  aspera 
Umbelliferae 
Passiflora  sp. 

Piper  nigrum 
,,  longum 
Ananas  sativa 
Bonea  oppositifolia 
Poinciana  spp. 

Punica  granatum 
Papaver  sp 
Solanum  tuberosum 
Ipomoea  batatas 

Raphanus  sp. 
Nephelium  lappaceum 
Achras  sapota 
Oryza  sativa 


Rosaceae 
Eugenia  sp. 

Xylia  xylocarpa 
Santalum  album 

Caesalpinia  sp. 
Pandanus  odoratissimus 
Sesamum  sp. 

Citrus  decumana 
Shorea  robusta 
Acacia  concinna 


604 

APPENDIX 

English 

Siamese  Name  of  Order,  genus  or  species 

Soapnut 

Ton  sapu 

Sugarcane 

Ton  oi 

Saccharum  officinarum 

Sunflower 

Dauk  than  tawan 

Helianthus  sp. 

Tamarind 

Makham 

Tamarindus  indica 

Tamarind  (manila) 

Makham  thet 

Inga  dulcis 

Tamarisk 

Ton  chanuk 

Tamarix  sp. 

Tapioca,  cassava 

Man  smarang 

Manihot  utilissima 

Tea 

Ton  cha 

Thea  sinensis 

Teak 

Ton  mai  sak 

Tectona  grandis 

Tobacco 

Ton  ya  sup 

Nicotiana  tuberosa 

Tomato 

Ton  makhua  thet 

Lycopersicum  esculen- 
tum 

Tuberose 

Dauk  saun  klin 

■ Ploianthes  tuberosa 

Turmeric 

Khamin 

Curcuma  longa 

Water  lily 

Chauk  hen 

Nymphaea  sp. 

Water  hyacinth 

Pak  chaw  a 

Eichornia  speciosa 

Willow 

Ton  krai  nam 

Salix  sp. 

Woodoil  tree 

Ton  nammanyang 

Melanorrhoea  usitata 

Wheat 

Khao  sali 

Triticum  vulgare 

Yam 

Kloi  ; man  men  seua  ; 
Man  keao  ; 

Man  sao,  etc. 

Dioscorea  spp. 

Yellow-wood 

Ten  krak 

Jacca  sp. 

LIST  OF  METALS,  MINERALS,  ETC. 


English  or  Scientific  Ncnnc 

Agate 

Alabaster 

Alum 

Amber 

Amethyst 

Ammonia 

Antimony 

Arsenic 

Asbestos 

Bismuth 

Bloodstone 

Bluestone 

Borax 

Brass 

Catseye 

Chalk 

Clay 

Coal 

Copper 

Copper  sulphate 
Coral 


Siamese  Name 
Moralai 
Sila  kbao 
San  som 

Seng  sieng  am  pan 
Phoi  si  muong 
Nam  dang  prasan  dibuk 
Rii  phluang 
San  nu 

Pa  apaha  ka  sila 
Ra  chao  cheng 
Hin  lent 
Chinna  si 
Nam  prasan  thong 
Thong  leuang 
Phet  ta  meao 
Din  sau  pong 
Din  neo 
Than  hin 
Thong  deng 
Chunsi 
Hin  karang 


APPENDIX 


605 


English  or  Scientific  Name 

Crystal 

Diamond 

Earth 

Emerald 

Flint 

Galena 

Garnet 

Gold 

Gold  and  copper  alloy 
Goldleaf 
Graphite 
Haematite 
Iron 
Cast- 
Wrought- 
Iron  ore 
Jade 
Jet 

Laterite 

Lead 

Lignite 

Limestone 

Marble 

Mercury 

Mud 

Nickel 

‘ Nine  gems  ’ (the) 

Nitre 

Onyx 

Opal 

Orpiment 

Pearl 

Petroleum 

Pewter 
Platinum 
Quartz 
Rock  crystal 
Ruby 

Sal-ammoniac 

Salt 

Sand 

Sandstone 
Sandstone  (red) 
Sapphire 
Silver 

Silver  nitrate 
Silver  ore 

Silver  and  copper  alloy 

Soapstone 

Soda 


Siamese  Name 
Keao  kelaup 
Phet 
Din 

Mora  kut 

Hin  lek  fai 

Takoa  dam 

Thap  thin  nam  khun 

Thong  kham 

Nak 

Thong  bai 
Din  sau 
Tao  rit  pha 
Lek 

Lek  pen 
Lek  awn 
Ra  lek 
Yok 
Si  nin 

Hin  khao  lao 

Takoa 

Than  hin 

Hin  pun 

Hin  awn 

Parawt 

Khlon 

Kalai 

Nop  kao 

Din  prasan  khao 

Mora 

Muk  da 

Din  thanan 

Khai  muk 

Namman  kat 

Nam  man  kin 

Takoa 

Thong  kham  khao 

Keao 

Plin  keao 

Thap  thim 

Nam  prasan  dibuk 

Kleua 

Sai 

Hin  sai 

Hin  sai  deng 

Nin  si  kram  kawn 

Ngeun 

Nam  ngeun 

Ra  ngeun 

Ngeun  nam  hauk 

Hin  awn 

Dang 


606 


APPENDIX 


English  or  Scientific  Xante 

Spinelle 

Steel 

Sulphur 

Tin 

Tin-foil 

Tin-ore 

Topaz 

Vermillion 

Vitriol 

Zinc 


Siamese  Name 
Phloi  hung 
Lek  kla 
Kamma  than 
Lek  wilat 
Takoa  kreap 
Dibuk 

Busyarakham 

Chat 

Nam  kraut  fai 
Sanka  si 


APPENDIX  II 


Abstract  of  the  Export  and  Import  Trade  returns  of  Bangkok  Port 
for  the  year  of  the  Siamese  era  128  i.e.  1909-1910: — 

Exports 


Articles 

Rice  ...... 

Teak 

Treasure  . . . . . 

Fish  of  all  kinds  .... 
Hides,  horns  of  all  kinds,  and  ivory 

Pepper 

All  other  goods  .... 
Re-exports  ..... 


Value  in  Ticals 

85,078,585 

6,975,057 

1,618,588 
.<  2,193,484 

L593.535 

679,251 

3,082,388 

1,349,546 


Value  in  Sterling 

^^6,425,875 

526,817 

122,000 

165,671 

120,358 

51,302 

232,808 

101,930 


Total 102,570.434  ^7,746,761 

A7.B.  Teak  exports  from  Bangkok  in  1909-10  came  to  only  about  half 
of  the  average  amount  for  the  last  five  years. 


Articles 

Motor  cars  and  parts 
Cement  .... 
Chemicals 
Petroleum  oil 

Porcelain  and  Earthenware 

Clothing 

Coal  \ 

Cotton  goods,  all  kinds  . 
I31ectrical  goods 
Fireworks 
Gunny  bags  . 

Jewellery 


Imports 


rahie  in  7'icals 

Value  in  Sterling 

583,144 

£ 44,044 

603,862 

45,609 

1,107,321 

83,634 

2,081,050 

157,180 

1,064.113 

80,371 

664,873 

50,217 

430,206 

32,493 

11,438,067 

879,008 

387,595 

29,274 

673,369 

50,858 

2,344,826 

177,101 

1,713,511 

129.420 

23,091,937 

1,759,209 

Carried  forward 


APPENDIX 

607 

Brought  forward 

23,09C937 

1,759,209 

Machinery,  all  sorts  .... 

1.349,107 

101,900 

Metal  manufactures ; copper,  brass, 
zinc,  tinware,  cast  iron,  wrought 

iron,  steel,  etc.,  .... 

4,869,  lOI 

368,000 

Food  and  provisions,  tinned  fish,  tinned 
fruit,  tinned  milk,  sugar  and  all 

groceries  ..... 

6,932,295 

523,590 

Silk 

3,774,264 

284,065 

Wine,  beer  and  spirits  .... 

1,452,786 

109,727 

Gold  leaf  . . . . . 

3,129,306 

236,352 

Opium  ...... 

2,341,350 

176,839 

Treasure  ...... 

4,070,070 

307,407 

Other  imports  ..... 

18,791,495 

1,419,297 

Total  . . .... 

69,801,711 

/5, 286,386 

APPENDIX  III 

A,  Siamese  Currency 
The  coins  now  in  use  are  : — 


Copper 

equal  Satang 

Nickel 

,,  5-Satang  piece 

9 9 

,,  lO-Satang  piece 

Silver 

,,  Salting  = 25  Satang 

9 9 

,,  Bat  or  Tical -100  Satan: 

Gold 

,,  Tot=ioBat 

Paper  Currency  ; 5,  10,  20,  50,  100,  1000  Bat  or  Tical  Treasuiy  notes. 
Three  S.S.  Dollars  = five  Ticals. 

B.  Siamese  Weights  and  Measures 


2 Anukrabiet 
4 Krabiet 
12  Niu 
2 Keup 
4 Sauk 
20  Wa 
400  Sen 


Long  Measure 

equal  i Krabiet 

,,  I Niu  or  finger-breadth 

,,  I Keup  or  hand-span 

,,  I Sauk  or  cubit 

,,  I Wa  or  fathom  = (full  stretch  of  a man’s  arms) 
,,  I Sen 


One  Wa  is  now  generally  accepted  as  equal  to  two  metres  so  that  a 
Yot  equals  sixteen  kilometres. 

40  Sea  are  roughly  counted  as=  one  English  mile  ; 44  would  be  more 
accurate. 


608 


APPENDIX 


144  square  Niu 
4 square  Kepu 
16  square  Sauk 
TOO  square  Wa 
4 Ngan 


Square  Meamre 

equal  i square  Keup 

,,  I square  Sauk 

,,  I square  Wa 

,,  I Ngan 

,,  I square  Sen  or  Rai|=  acr 


5 Li 
5 Hun 
2 Fuang 
4 Saliing 
80  Bat  ‘ 
50  Chang 


equal 


jMeasures  of  Weight 

I Hun,  the  small  red  seed  of  Abrus  * 

I Fuang 
1 Salting 

I Bat  (about  ^ ounce  Av.  or  15  grammes) 
I Chang 

I flap  (pikul)  or  133^  lbs  Av. 


The  silver  coinage  supplies  the  weights  Fuang,  Salting,  and  Bat. 


Aleasures  of  Capacity 


4 Kham-meu  (handful)  equal 
2 Chang-awn  ,, 

20  Thanan 
25  Thanan 
80  Sat 
100  Thang 


I Chang-awn 

I Thanan  (a  half  coconut  shell) 
I Thang  (bucket) 

I Sat  (basket) 

I Kwien  (cartload) 


One  Thanan  usually  equals  roughly  a quart  but  the  capacity  of  this 
measure,  as  also  of  Thang  and  Sat,  varies  greatly  in  different  parts  of  the 
country  and  according  to  the  articles  measured. 


Cubic  Meas7ire  in  Teak  Trade 
I Yok  equal  to  64  sauk  by  i sauk  by  i niu  (about  ii^  cubic  feet). 

* According  to  another  reckoning,  50  II  = i fuang. 


APPENDIX  IV 


THE  HEW  KING 

The  first  action  of  the  new  king,  who  on  ascending 
the  throne  took  the  name  and  titles  Somdetch  Phra 
Paramendr  Maha  A^ajiravndh  Phra  Mongknt  Klao, 
was  to  order  a national  mourning  for  his  father  for 
one  year.  During  the  course  of  this  period  (in  April 
1911)  the  cremation  of  the  body  of  the  late  king  took 
place  in  the  presence  of  a vast  concourse  of  people. 
Shortly  after  the  cremation  His  Majesty’s  brother  and 
Heir  Presnmjjtive  visited  many  European  countries  to 
express  the  desire  of  the  King  that  representatives 
might  be  present  at  Bangkok  on  the  occasion  of  his 
coronation  which  was  fixed  for  the  following  cold 
season.  Preparations  on  a scale  never  before  attempted 
in  Siam  were  made  for  this  celebration,  and  a short 
vrhile  after  the  expiry  of  the  national  mourning,  foreign 
delegates  began  to  arrive,  troops  to  assemble,  and  the 
capital  to  assume  a highly  festive  appearance.  On  the 
2nd  December  1911  His  Majesty  was  crowned,  or  rather 
cromied  himself  according  to  custom,  in  the  presence 
of  Royal  Representatives  from  Japan,  Russia,  England, 
Sweden  and  Denmark,  of  specially  accredited  representa- 
tives from  most  other  countries  of  the  civilised  world 
and  of  his  own  royal  relatives  and  his  ministers  and 
officials  of  state.  For  the  ensuing  week  the  capital 
was  en  fete  and  the  king  with  his  guests  went  through 
a long  programme  of  banquets,  balls  and  threatrical 
representations,  with  state  processions,  a magnificent 
review  of  the  Siamese  army  and  many  other  functions. 
The  whole  affair  was  a great  and  well  executed  effort. 
It  may  be  called  Siam’s  ‘field  of  the  cloth  of  gold,’  and 
it  did  not  fail  to  impress  all  who  saw  it.  The  represen- 
tatives left  Siam  after  the  10th  December  and  the 
capital  soon  returned  to  its  normal  condition. 


GO  8b 


APPENDIX  IV 


THE  WILD  TIGER  SCOUT  CORPS 

A remarkable  institution  known  as  the  ‘ Wild  Tiger 
Scout  Corps  ’ was  founded  by  His  Majesty  the  King 
during  the  earlier  part  of  I9II.  Long  ago,  when  wars 
were  frequent,  members  of  the  upper  class  who 
voluntarily  took  up  arms  joined  either  the  ‘ Wild 
Tiger’  or  ‘ Wild  Cat  ’ corps,  two  bodies  of  irregular 
soldiers  noted  for  dash  and  bravery  and  enjoying  many 
privileges,  and  the  tale  of  whose  exploits  is  to  be 
found  in  many  a page  of  Siamese  history.  His 
Majesty  considering  that  an  active  life  and  encourage- 
ment in  the  exercises  of  self-restraint,  discipline, 
loyalty  and  other  manly  virtues  would  be  likely  to 
benefit  the  upper  classes  of  his  people,  conceived 
the  idea  of  resuscitating  one  of  these  ancient  bands  and 
of  grafting  upon  it  the  excellent  precepts  and  discipline 
wdiich  form  the  mainspring  of  the  British  Boy  Scout 
movement. 

The  ‘ Wild  Tiger  Scout  Corps  ’ therefore  came  into 
existence,  with  the  enrolment  of  two  or  three  hundred 
volunteers  from  amongst  the  officials  of  the  various 
offices  of  civil  government  in  Bangkok.  Once  started, 
the  movement  spread  with  extraordinary  rapidity  until 
within  a few  months  of  the  date  of  the  first  meeting 
the  Corps  contained  practically  every  civil  official  in 
the  country.  There  are  now  over  forty  companies  of 
scouts.  His  Majesty  the  King  is  the  captain-general 
of  the  force  and  the  full  complement  of  officers  has 
been  appointed.  The  uniform  consists  of  shirt,  loose 
knickerbockers,  stockings,  boots,  felt  hat  with  the 
brim  turned  up  at  one  side,  and  leather  belt,  the 
whole  in  black  finished  off  with  a large  yellow  scarf 
round  the  neck  and  yellow  or  other  coloured  shoulder- 
straps.  A heavy  knife  is  carried  at  the  left  side  and 
no  otlier  arms  have  yet  been  provided  though  most  of 
the  companies  have  been  instructed  in  rifle  drill. 
There  is  a mounted  company  in  Bangkok,  the  uniform 
of  whose  members  is  similar  to  that  of  the  foot-scouts 


APPENDIX  IV 


608c 


except  that  the  shorts  and  stockings  are  replaced  by 
black  breeches  and  long  boots. 

The  companies  turn  out  for  drill  on  six  days  of  the 
week  with  the  utmost  regularity.  Those  which  belong 
to  Bangkok  are  under  the  eye  of  the  King  himself, 
who  drills  with  them  and  takes  many  hundreds  of 
them  out  into  the  country  at  week-ends  for  manoeuvres. 

The  institution  has  acquired  an  enormous  importance 
in  the  eyes  of  the  higher,  or  official,  classes  for  it  not 
only  absorbs  a certain  part  of  the  time  which  used  to 
be  given  to  ordinary  office  work  and  practically  the 
whole  of  their  leisure,  but  it  constitutes  now  to  any 
wdio  are  ambitious,  the  most  obvious  road  to  prefer- 
ment, many  prizes  being  within  the  grasp  of  a smartly 
drilled,  intelligent  and  well-turned-out  scout  who  may 
happen  to  catch  the  royal  eye. 

The  headquarters,  or  Club  of  the  ‘Tigers’  is  at  the 
moment  the  chief  social  institution  in  the  country. 
Affiliated  to  the  ‘ Wild  Tigers  ’ are  many  companies  of 
real  boy  scouts,  recruited  from  the  Goverment  schools 
and  known  as  ‘Tiger’s  Whelps.’  These  wear  khaki 
shirts,  black  shorts  and  wideawake  hats.  They  swarm 
in  Bangkok  and  in  all  the  country  towns,  appear  very 
keen  on  their  work  and  undoubtedly  derive  immense 
benefit  from  the  drilling  and  scouting  to  which  they 
are  subjected  and  the  wholesome  precepts  with  which 
the}"  are  freely  dosed. 


::  '■  :,l 


INDEX 


ABBREVIATIONS : 


is.  — island 
MaL  = Malay 

= mountain  peak 
mountain  range 
Pal.  = P^\[ 

Abbots,  entitled  to  prefix 
494,  495 

Abidharma,  see  Phra  Baramat 
Absolute  Monarchy,  217,  236 
Accounts  Department,  259 
Administrative  Divisions,  7,  8, 

9,  II,  12 

Adolescence,  149,  517-21 
Advisers,  National  Judge-, 
283,  284 

Agriculture,  iii,  116,  123, 
127,  130,  132,  135,  136, 
165,  256,  257,  287-90 
Agriculture  and  Planting,  297- 
322 

Agricultural  implements,  305, 

307.  310 

Agricultural  products,  279- 
321 

Ahom  tribey  220 
Aka,  Akha  or  Kaw,  tribey  104, 
108,  123,  133,  134-35 
Alabaster,  Henry,  477,  485, 

49>.  583. 

Alphabet,  Siamese,  175,  554- 
57;  Ariyaka,  556;  Kam- 
bodian  (“  Khom  ”),  176 
Amarapura,  199 

2 Q 


province  or  administrative 
division 
r.  — river 
^kt.  = Sanscrit 
t,  = town  or  settlement 

Amp'oy  a division  of  land,  252 
Ancestor  w'orship,  518 
Angkor  Waty  446 
Ang  Tong,/.,  31 
Anghin  district,  88 
Angkor  Thom,  ancient  capital 
of  Kambodia,  179,  446 
Animism,  132,  161,476,  520, 
527-49 

Annals  of  Ayuthia,  168  ; of 
the  North  Country,  1 67  ; of 
Sukhothai-Sawankalok,  175 
Annam,  2 

Annamese,  see  Yuan 
Annandale  and  Skeat,  1 64 
Appeal  Courts,  281,  282 
Archaeology,  31,  444-52,  488 
Architecture,  160,  173,  200, 
+54-58,  +98-501 
Area  of  Siam,  5,  6 
Aristocracy,  2 i 8 
Ariyaka  alphabet,  556 
Army,  29,221, 2++-+7, 3+6-47 
Art,  197,  +2+-+2 
Artillery,  247 

Arts,  141,  161,  162,  173,441 
Arupaphoniy  a kind  of  Buddhist 
angels,  484 


6io 


INDEX 


Astrologers,  Brahman,  518, 
522 

Attorney- General’s  Depart- 
ment, 281 
Augite,  89 
Ava,  160,  194,  196 
Avatars,  526 

“ Ayuddhya,  Maha  Nakhon 
Sri,”  see  Ayuthia,  182 
Ayuthiaor  Krung  Khao  (“Old 
Capital  ”)  ; in  full,  “ Maha 
Nakhon  Sri  Ayuddhya,”  or 
Ayuddha,  on  site  of  Dwara- 
wati,  8,  16,  23,  28-29, 
106,  143,  168,  182-96, 

342. 367-  376, 378, 418, 

445 

Bacteriological  Laboratory 
at  Bangkok,  63,  277 
Bai  Se??ia,  a charm,  499,  547 
Bat  Si,  a sacred  standard  or 
emblem,  5 1 1 
Bali,  see  Pali 
Bamboo,  16,  17,  61,  351 
Ban  (“village”),  21  ; Ban 
Mai,  3 ; Ban  Sam  Kok, 
t.,  16;  Ban  Takwai,  16 
Bandara,  420 
Bandon  or  Chumporn, 

1 1 

Bandon,  t.  and  r.,  5,  20 
Bands,  orchestral,  162,  467 
Bangkok  or  Krung  Tep 
(“  Heavenly  Royal  City”), 
capital,  8,  17,  22-26,  109, 
140,  145,  157,  197,  199, 
200,233,248,  257,  262-63, 
367^  3697374.416-18,420, 

432,  590-91 

Banking,  262-63,  267-68 


Bang  Pakong,  r.,  6,  18,  19 
Barges,  Royal  State,  370,  509 
“ Barkalong,”  see  Phra  Klang 
Basalt,  89 
Bassac,  3 

Bat,  coin,  also  weight  = tical, 
264,  270,  274,  607,  608 
(time),  274 

Battambong  (Kambodia),/>rfii2^. 

and  t.,  3,  202 
Bees- wax,  128 
Begging-bowl,  Monks’,  496 
Benchaprathum  (pratum),  the 
five  sacred  lotus  flowers,  440 
Bencharong  ware,  440 
“Betel-nut”  (i.e.  areca-nut) 
Palm,  58,  318-19,  600 
“ Betel  ” -vine,  or  betel-/^^/ 
vine,  53,  321,  600 
Bibliography,  577-91 
Birds,  see  Fauna 
Birth,  Childhood,  and  Adoles- 
cence, 147 

“Bison”  (Indian)  or  gaur,  69, 

35L  593 

^(9-tree  or  Boh-txcQ,  54,  478, 
499,  600 

Board  of  Health,  277 
Boat-building,  369-71 
Boats  {cheo),  403,  404 
Boats  {rica),  403-10,  509 
Bonds,  Government,  261-69 
“ Bonze  ” (Jap.  for  “ monk  ”), 
applied  to  Siamese  monks, 
Phra,  497 

Books,  Siamese,  136,  575-89 
Bot  {pr.  bawt),  the  enclosure 
round  a temple  (Wat), 
498-500 
Boundaries,  2 

Bowring,  Sir  John,  32,  67, 


INDEX 


205,  317,  381,  388,  398, 

532, 583 

Boy-Monks  (Sisya),  494 
Boys,  Siamese,  234-35 
Brahmanism,  116,  137,  149, 
154,  169,  171,  172,  446, 
476,  486-87,  488,  516-38 
Brahmano  - Buddhism,  149, 

517 

Brick  and  stucco  architecture, 
426,  428,  447 

Brick  buildings,  426,  428, 

447,  448,  457,  458 
Bridges,  293 

British  and  Siam,  2,  3,  ii, 

190,  203,  205,  212,  242, 

377,  380,  381,  384,  394 
Bronze  casting  and  working, 
166,  428 

Brooke,  Sir  J.,  205 
Buddha,  150,  439,  477-83  ; 

“ the  Emerald,”  5 i 5 
Buddha,  description  of  image, 
42 / ^ 

Buddhism,  i,  115,  119,  124, 
126,  132,  133,  149,  150, 

i6o,  161,  163,  173,  476- 

Buddhism:  Rules  of  the  order, 
P^ra  IVinal  (Vi  nay  a),  480 
Buddhist  Era,  272,  273 
Buddhist  Nuns  {Chi 
495 

Budget,  the  financial,  259 
Buffalo,  70,  313,  593 
Bugis,  the  (people  of  Celebes), 
103 

Buildings,  Public,  294 
Burial  customs,  1 1 2,  1 1 5,  i 27, 
130,  132,  135,  137 
Burma,  2,  4,  7,  10,  98,  105, 


611 

106,  107,  135,  158,  164, 

180,  187,  190,  207,  387, 

397  ; Wars  with,  see  Wars 
Burma,  Kings  of  (in  relation 
to  Siam),  Nares  (Pegu), 
180 ; Thabin  Shwe  Hti, 
184;  Bureng  Naung 
(Pegu),  185-6;  Nanda 
Bureng,  187  ; Alaung  Phra, 
194;  Sin  Buya  Shin,  194, 
196,  197;  Bodaw  Phra, 

198 

Burmese,  the,  2,  106,  109, 
118,  160,  162,  185,  186, 

187,  194,  195,  197,  198, 

199 

Burmese,  Shan  States,  people 
of,  105 

Burney,  Capt.,  203 
Business  ability  of  Siamese, 
140 

Cadastral  Survey,  289 
Caligraphy,  130,  133,  160, 
229,556 

Cambridge  Expedition  (of 
1899-1900)  to  Siamese- 
Malay  States,  89,  iio 
Canals,  19,  275,  402-3,  408 
Cane,  sugar,  see  Sugar-cane 
Canes,  Rattans,  etc.,  58,  351, 
60 1 

Capacity,  measures  of,  271-72, 
608 

Capes,  Liant,  4 ; Sam  it,  3,  4,  6 
Carriages,  504,  509 
Carts,  3 I I 
Carving,  161,  429 
Casuarina  or  “ She-oak  ” tree, 
II.  53.  350 

Cattle,  130,  137.313.391-92 


6i2 


INDEX 


Cavalry,  247 

Central  Siam,  6-9 ; geology 
of,  88 

Ceremonies,  112,  115,  116, 
117,  130,  132,  135,  137, 
H7-57»  495-97  ; Buddhist, 
505-15;  Brahman,  516-38; 
Mahommedan,  517  ; Ton- 
sure,  149,  517-21 
Chainat,  16 
‘‘  Chain  of  Existence,”  481 
Chakkri,  Order  of  the  House 
of  Chakkri,”  227 
Chakf'a  [Chakr),  the  Sacred 
Wheel,  264,  5 1 1 
Chakraivan,  a kind  of  Buddhist 
angels,  483 

Chakrawarti  Raja,  Maha,  526 
, Chakrawartin,  a “ world-con- 
queror ”),  478,  526 
Chalang,  see  “Junk  Ceylon  ” 
Cha  Mum,  a grade  of  Siamese 
nobility,  239 

Chang  Pheuak  “White”  (al- 
bino) Elephant,  527;  fes- 
tival of,  526-27 
Chantaburi,  prov.,  r.,  and 
3,  4,  8,  14,  18,  30,  53,  68, 
93,  127,  182,  209-10,  321  ; 
inscriptions  at,  451 
Chao  (hereditary  chief),  e.g. 

Chao  Miiang,  541-42 
Chao  Kana,  ecclesiastical  head, 
494 

Chao  Kana  Y at,  chief  abbot, 
493-94 

Chao  Muang,  chief  of  a Muang 
or  province,  250,  252 
Chao  Mum  (or  Mun),  a title  of 
female  rank  in  Siam,  239 
Chao  Nai,  “a  Royalty,”  216 


Chao  Phaya  (administrative 
title,  higher  than  Chao  or 
Chao  Muang,  etc.),  239 
Chao  Phaya  Polatep  (a  high  ad- 
ministrative title,  now  given 
to  Minister  of  Agriculture), 
287 

Chao  Tah,  harbour  master,  278 
Chap,  see  Cymbals 
Chaping,  little  girl’s  waist- 
ornament  or  waist  - plate, 
144 

Character,  Siamese,  138 
Charms,  112,  131;,  141,  142, 
158,  161,  365,  474, 509, 
518, 524, 526, 534,  536, 

5+3. 545-7 

Chemicals  and  Drugs,  imports 
of,  394 

Chiefs,  hereditary,  see  Chao 
Chieng-Dao,  mtn.,  13 
Chieng  Kawng  (Kan,  Khong), 
district  2.r\di  93,  123,  135 
Chieng  prov.  and  t.,  13, 
26-28,  87,  158,  159,  179, 
183,  184,  185,  194,  198, 
355.  397.  415.  441.  448. 

Chieng  Rai,  t.,  2 i 
Chieng  Sen,  prov.  and  A,  2, 
86,  87,  133,  135,  173,  188 
Childbirth  customs,  147,  148 
Childhood  customs,  147,  149 
CWinhok  tribes,  130 
Chinese,  12,  91,  92,  105,  107, 
108,  no,  181,  380,  382, 

387 

Chinese  Emperors,  106,  167, 
173,  181,  200,  201 
Chinese  Nostrums,  387 
Chinese,  relations  with,  202 


INDEX 


613 


Chmg,  see  Cymbals 
Chinneraj,  the  Emerald 
Buddha,”  197,  5 I 5 
Chong  tribe,  103,  108,  127-28 
Christianity,  120,  476 
Chronicles  of  the  Emperors 
of  China,  167  ; annals  of 
Ayuthia,  168  ; of  the  North 
Country,  167;  of  Suk- 
hothai  - Sawankalok  King- 
dom, 175 

‘‘  Chula  Chom  Klao,”  Order 
of  distinction,  227 
Chulakantamangala,  Tonsure 
ceremony,  149,  517-21 
Chula  Sakarat  (Sakkarat),  an 
era  of  time,  638  to  1 78  i a.d., 
175,  176,  272,  273 
Chumporn  {pr.  Chemphawn), 
t.  and  proz’.,  5,  1 1,  33 
Chum  Seng,  i 5 
Circumcision,  115,  132,  517 
Civil  Courts,  281 
Civil  Procedure  Code,  286 
Civil  Service  (of  Siam),  232, 
254;  Schools  for,  232; 
College  for,  232,  254 
Civilisation,  stages  of,  10 1, 
103,  125,  126,  130,  132, 
202 

Climate,  31,  32,  33 
Coal,  94 

Coco -nuts,  58,  142,  271, 

313-15,  603 
Code,  civil,  286 
Coinage,  264-67,  607 
Colleges,  231,  232,  233,  254 
Colour,  racial,  ill,  115,  125, 
142,  159 

Commerce,  trade  and  treaties, 
375-+OI 


Commercial  Code,  286 
Communications  and  Trans- 
port, 401-23 

Comptroller  - General’s  De- 
partment, 260 

Confucianists  (Chinese),  476 
Cooking  and  Meals,  147 
Copper  {thong  deng),  94-95 
Corundum,  89 
Corvee  labour,  220 
Costume,  III,  1 1 4,  1 1 6,  1 1 8, 
119,  122,  123,  131,  132, 
136, 142-144 

Cotton,  38,  135,  137,  319-20, 
601 

Courts,  Civil  and  Criminal, 
281 

Court  of  Eoreign  Causes,  281 
Courts  of  Justice,  see  Law 
Courts 

Crawfurd,  John,  203,  365, 

379.  582 

Credit  of  Siam,  269 
Cremation,  137,  154,  521 
Crime,  139 
Criminal  Courts,  281 
‘‘Crocodile,”  the  {^‘  takhe”), 
a musical  Instrument,  465- 
66 

Crown  Property,  2 1 9 
Crustaceans,  80-81,  292,  599- 
600 

“ Crown  of  Siam,”  Order  of 
the,  226 

Cubic  measure  (as  used  in  teak 
trade),  272 

Currency,  263-68,  607 
Currency  Act,  266-67 
Customs  and  Manners,  124, 
128,  135,  136,  137,  138, 
163 


INDEX 


614 

Customs,  Revenue,  278,  398- 
401  ; Department  of,  399  ; 
Tariff,  399 

Cutch,  41,  349,  350,  601 
“ Cutting  the  Top-knot,”  see 
Tonsure  Ceremony 
Cymbals,  Chap  or  Ching,  463 

Dahj  a kind  of  native  sword 
(specially  Meao),  128 
Damrong,  H.R.H.  Prince, 
167,  230,231,251,575-76 
Dances,  112,  127,  133,  141, 

471-73 

Dayaks  (Borneo),  103 
Death  Ceremonies,  153-57, 
166 

Debt,  National,  269 
De  Candolle,  43 
Decoration,  house  and  temple, 

+26-33.  +38 

Deities,  Brahman,  452,  453, 
534;  Buddhist,  453,  477- 

Demon  Worship,  163 
Deng  (“Red  One”),  applied 
to  a “ Baby,”  1 48 
Departments  of  State,  228-36, 
236-96;  Finance,  238,  258- 
74;  Foreign  Affairs,  238, 
240-43;  Interior,  238,  250- 
58;  Justice,  238,  279-87; 
Land  and  Agriculture,  238, 
287-90,322-27;  Ministry 
of  the  Capital,  238,  274-79; 
Public  Instruction  (Educa- 
tion), 228-36,  238  ; Public 
Works,  238,  291-96,  415- 
23;  Royal  Household,  238 ; 
War,  238,  243-50 
Departments,  Sub-  (Govern- 


ment), Gendarmerie,  255- 
56  ; Forestry,  258,  355-57  ; 
Mines  and  Mineralogy, 
258,  359-60,  362;  Ac- 
counts, 259;  Comptrollor- 
GeneraPs,  260 ; Treasury, 
263  ; Army,  248  ; Navy, 
248,  289  ; Police  (Bang- 
kok), 2 7 5-76;  Sanitary,  276- 
77  ; Public  Health,  277  ; 
Engineering,  277 ; Har- 
bour Master’s,  278  ; Re- 
venue (Customs),  278,  399  ; 
Survey,  287-89  ; Land  Re- 
venue, 278,  288 ; Land 
Records,  288  ; Mines  and 
Forests,  288  ; Agriculture, 
290;  Irrigation,  34,  290, 
322-26;  Posts  and  Tele- 
graphs,29 1-93  ; Works,  291, 
293-96;  Railwa)’,29i,  417, 
423  ; Royal  Elephant,  342 
Dewawongse,  H.R.H.  Prince, 
240 

Diracha,  a high  Siamese  title, 
185,  186 

Disembodiment : Chan  (Skt. 

Dhyana),  503 

Divisions  of  Siam,  Administra- 
tive, 7,  8,  9,  1 1,  12 
Divisions  of  Siam  (Geog  ), 
Main,  6 ; Northern,  6,  7 ; 
Central,  6,  7,  8 ; Eastern, 
6,  9 ; Southern,  6 
Divorce,  153,  165 
Dockyard,  248 
Doi-Intanon,  mtn.,  13 
Dong  Phaya  Fai,  mtns.,  14 
Dong  Phaya  Yen,  mtns.,  88 
Drainage  Systems,  293 
Drama,  141,  469-75 


INDEX 


615 


Draught-Cattle,  3 1 3 
Dravidians,  loi 
Drawing  and  Painting,  3.38-39 
Drink,  58;  with  meal?,  147; 
spirits,  165 

Drums,  Malay  {klojig  khek), 
461  ; large  orchestral  {kiong 
yai)j  461  ; (thdn),  462 
Drums,  Native,  461-62 
Dusit  Park,  24,  25,  515 
Dutch  in  Siam,  189,  190, 

214.377 

Dwarapurl  (Dvarapuri),  see 
Dwarawati 

Dwarawatl  (Dv^aravati),  later 
Dwarapuri,  ancient  28, 

29,  171 

Dyes,  41,  46,  47,  142,  349 

Ear  ornaments  and  ear  pierc- 
ing, 163,  164,  165,  516 
Ecclesiastical  Law  (1903), 494; 
Titles,  494 

Education,  149,  228-36,  550, 

579 

Elephant  Department,  Royal, 
3+2 

Elephant,  White  {ChangPheu- 
ak),  527 

Elephants,  342-45,  414,  526- 
27;  so-called  ‘‘White”  (or 
Albino),  526-27 
Embroidery,  161,  441 
“ Emerald  Buddha,”  197,  5 i 5 
Engineering  Department,  277 
Engineering,  training  for,  232 
Engineers,  Army,  247  ; Dis- 
trict, 294 

Ensign,  Siamese  National,  114 
Eras  of  Time,  175,  176,272, 

273 


Europeans  in  Siam,  189,  190 
Evolution  of  Siamese  Race 
and  Nation,  98,  103,  198  ; 
of  “Malays”  in  Siam,  114 
Exchange,  266-67 
Expenditure,  National,  261 
Expeditions,  Scientific,  89,1 10 
Exports,  386-93,  606 

Fan  {tala pat),  used  by  monks, 

^ 496, 497 

Faulkon,  Constantine,  191, 
192.  193.  316,  449,  580 
Fauna,  63-83,  593-600 
Finance,  258-269,  272,  293 
Fish  (/>/^l),  various  kinds  of,  79, 

^ 146,  327-+0,  597798 

Fisheries  and  Fishing  116, 
127,  146,  257,  327-40; 

Implements,  335-40 
Fishes,  328,  331,  334,  338  ; 

see  also  Fauna 
Floods,  17,  303,  304 
Flora,  16,  35-63,  348,  349, 
350.  J5L  353.  3 5+.  600-4 
Flute,  Siamese  {kliii),  464 
Foods,  37,  38,  48,  49,  50, 
54,  56,  57,  60,  61,  75,  77, 
78,  80,  86,  127-35,  1+6, 
1+7.  298,  321,  327 
“Foot-prints,”  sacred,  +32, 
510-13 

Forbes,  Capt.,  C.H.S.,  100, 

Foreign  Afiairs,  Ministry  of, 
^ 240-43 

Foreign  Causes,  Court  of,  281 
Foreign  Missionaries,!  20,  233, 
^ 33  + 

Forestry,  Department  of,  258, 

355-57 


6i6 


INDEX 


Forestry  and  Forests,  347-59 
Four  Great  Truths,”  the, 
48 1 

Fournerau,  167,  444,  586 
Frankfurter,  Dr.  O.,  167,  568, 
575-76, 589 

French  in  Siam,  192,  193, 
208,  209,  210,  2 1 1,  241 
Frog  Gong,”  1 66 
Frontiers,  2,  3 ; Delimitations 
of,  2,  3,  210,  211,  2 T 2 
Fruits,  321,  600-4; 

Flora 

Fuel,  44,  94,  349 

Galena  {takoa  dam),  91,  95, 
605 

Gambling,  141,  261,  262, 

365 

Game,  1 1 2,‘i  32,  also  Fauna 
Ganesh  (Ganesha,  “ Lord  of 
Troops”),  452,  534 
Gamier,  Francis,  100,  444, 
584 

Garuda,  see  Khrut 
Gems,  30,  87,  89,  93-94, 
364-366,  438,  604-6 
Gendarmerie,  254-56 
Geology  of  Siam,  86-96 
Gerini,  Col.  G.  E.,  167,  247, 
372, 444, 486, 497, 577, 

585, 587^ 

Ghosts  or  Spirits  (phi),  538- 

49 

Ghost-houses,”  548 
Ghost-names,  e.g.  Chao  Chet, 
ghost  of  ^an  Chao  Haw 
^ Klong,  541,  542 
Gilding,  Art  of,  429,  432, 
54L  542 

Goats,  130,  137,  594 


Gold  {tho?ig  kam),  9,  18,  20, 
90,  91,  360-61,  438,  605 
Gold-leaf  (thong hai),^'^2, 

605 

Gold  Mining  Centre, see  Tomoh 
Gongs,  ‘‘Frog,”  166 
Gongs,  orchestral,  166, 462-63 
Government,  236-96 
Granaries,  rice,  308 
Granite,  14,  86,  87,  92 
Grierson,  Dr.,  100,  134,  220 
Groups,  tribal,  108 
Gulf  of  Siam,  2,  3,  4,  7,  18, 
328-32,  369-70 

“ Hailam,”  the  name  usually 
given  to  Chinese  from  the 
Isle  of  Hainan  (q-r^h),  103, 
108 

Hainan,  is.  oft'  S.  Coast  of 
China,  103,  108;  people 
' of,  103,  108 
Hansa'''^  (i.e.,  ham  fa),  the 
sacred  goose,  570 
Hanthawadi,  ancient  t.,  188 
Harbour  Master’s  Depart- 
ment, 278 

Harbour  Regulations,  279 
Harbours,  4,  5,  1 1 
Haribunjaya,  see  Labong 
Harmonica,  see  Xylophone 
Haung  Daya,  r.,  3 
Head-dress,  116,  119,  121, 
122,  123,  126,  128,  129, 

I3L  132,  134^  135^  136, 
H3j  H4’  149^  159^  1^3. 
164,  165 

Health,  Board  of,  277 
High  Court,  old  (at  Bangkok), 
280 

Hill-tribes,  106,  107,  iii. 


INDEX 


617 


121,  123,  127,  129,  132, 

133 

“ Himaphan  ” (the  Siamese 
fairy-land,  probably  the 
Himalayas),  440,  485 
Historical  literature  and  re- 
cords, 570-71 
History  of  Siam,  166-213 
Hoa  Muang  (the  headquarters 
of  a province),  2 i 
Hoi  (bivalves),  80 
Hokkien  (Chinese),  103,  108 
Hon  (Brahman  astrologers), 
518,  522 

Honesty  of  Siamese,  1 60 
Hopea  (used  for  timber),  38, 
370,  371,  602 

^‘Horses”  (or  rather  ponies), 
130 

Hospitals,  277 

Houses,  Native,  112,  115, 

123,  127,  1^29,  130,  132, 
136,  165;  Floating,  146 
Hunting  and  Trapping,  112, 
132,  136,  164,  341-47 

Implements,  Agricultural,  1 16, 
305^  307^  3*0;  Fishing, 

116, 335-40 

Imports,  383,  385,  393-94, 
606-7 

Indigo,  41,  602 
Indra  [Phra  1 71)^  522 
Industries,  31,  in,  1 12,  119, 
123,  125,  132,  135,  137, 
296-401 
Infantry,  247 
Inlaying,  429-32 
Inscriptions, ancient,  i 76,  i 77, 
450-51 

Insects,  14,  see  also  Fauna 


Interior,  Ministry  of  the,  see 
Ministry  of  the  Interior 
International  Courts,  281,283, 

58  + 

‘‘Interpreter  of  the  Law” 
(Law-court  official),  280 
Intoxicants,  58,  59,  165 
Invasions  by  Peguans,  184, 
185,  187,  189,  194,  195, 
• 197,  198;  Burmese,  170, 
180;  Kambodians,  179, 
183,  186,  189  ; Lao,  173, 
178,  I 8 I ; Mon,  1 68 
Invertebrates,  see  Fauna 
Iron,  95,  123,  135,  166,  605 
Irrawaddy,  r.,  100,  104 
Irrigation,  34,  208,  290,  322- 
26;  Royal  Department,  326 
Isarn,  prov.  and  9 
Islamism,  115,  550-51 
Islands,  5 

Isthmus  of  Kra  or  Kraw,  10 


Jakun  (wild  tribes  of  Malay 
Pen.),  107 
Javanese,  103 

Jewellery,  126,  127,  132,  134, 
*37^  *++.  *59^  *63,  164, 
165,436-38 

Judge-advisors,  National,  283, 
284 

Judges,  282-84 
Judicial  Organisation,  Law  of, 
287 

Jungle  Tribes,  14 
“Junk  Ceylon,”  or  Seylon 
(corruption  of  Mai.  Ujong 
Salang),  Chalang,  Thalang, 
or  “belong,”  A.,  5,  28 
Justice,  279-87 


6i8 


INDEX 


Justice,  Ministry  of,  238, 
279-87 

Ka,  tribe,  see  Kache 
Ka  Racha  Kan,  a poll-tax,  225 
Kabin  (Krabin),  t.  and  prov., 
14,  18,  88,  361 
Ka  Bit,  clan,  104,  123 
Kache  or  Ka,  tribe,  103,  104, 
108,  123-27,  300 
Kachin,  tribe,  122 
Ka  Hok,  the,  clan,  104,  123, 
126 

Kam  (Karma),  490 
Kambodia,  2,  3,  7,  168,  169, 
178,  183,  184,  187,  188, 
202,  204,  207,  209,  210, 
211,  271,  446 

Kambodians  (Khmer),  i,  9, 
30,  100,  103,  179,  183, 
186,  189 

Kamet,  clan,  104,  123 
Kammahtan,  name  of  one  of 
the  Monks’  meditations, 

503 

Kamnan  (an  official  rank),  239 
Kampeng  Phet  (Pet),  state  and 
A,  31,  181 

Kamuk,  clan,  104,  122,  123, 
124,  125,  126,  346 
Kana  Dhammayutlka,  a Budd- 
hist Brotherhood,  494 
Kan  Mali  (lit.  “eat  betel- 
leaf”),  ceremony,  152 
Kan  Tat  Chuk,  Tonsure  cere- 
mony, 145,  517-21 
Kifn  Wlsakha,  festival  of  birth 
and  death  of  Buddha, 
506 

Kanburi,  A,  19 
Kao  (rice),  see  Kliao 


Kao-Chemao,  mtn.,  14 
Kao  Kmock,  mtn.,  14 
Kao  Luang,  mtn.,  1 5 
Kao  Phra  Wan,  mtn.,  i 5 
Kao  Prong,  mtn.,  i 5 
Kao-Sabab,  mtn.,  89 
Kao  Saidao  (Sai  Dao),  mtn., 
14, 89 

Kap,  a mythical  period  of 
time,  484 

Kapl,  the  well-known  evil- 
smelling “ prawn  - condi - 
ment,”  146,  333-34 
Kapilawat,  modern  NagarKus, 
near  Benares,  478,  532 
Kapok,  tree-cotton,  320,  601 
Karang,  the  tin-bearing  stra- 
tum, 363 

Karien  or  Karen,  107,  108, 
109,  165-66,  300,  346 
Karinga  (Mai.  Kerlngga),  the 
poisonous  red  tree  ant,  82 
Kasyapa,  an  original  member 
of  the  Buddhist  Monkhood, 
480 

Kaw,  see  Akha 
Kaw  Kram,  district,  88 
Kaw  Phra  Sal,  or  “strew  holy 
sand  ” festival,  5 14 
Kawi,  tribe,  see  Kuwi  or  Kui 
“Kaye,”  the  God  of  Thunder, 
1 1 2 

Kedah,  a state  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  an  early  Portu- 
guese settlement,  now 
British,  11,  190  ; Archaeolo- 
gical researches  in,  450; 
Stone  inscriptions  of,  450 
Ken,  the  favourite  musical  in- 
strument of  further  India, 
133.  161,  464 


INDEX 


619 


Keng  Tung,  a Shan  State  on 
northern  boundary  of  Siam, 
2,  244. 

Ketu,  a Brahman  deity,  519 
Keuft,  the  nights  of  the  waxing 
moon,  274 
Khao,  rice,  300,  303 
Khao  Wasan  (“  entrance  ” of 
the  rainy  season),  beginning 
of  the  Buddhist  Lent,  506 
Khlang  \Khkn^  Rang  Sit,” 

324.  325 

Khlong  (Khlang)  Kut  Mai, 
canal,  a branch  of  Menam 
Chao  Phaya,  275 
“ Khlong  {Khlang)  Rang  Sit,” 

. 324.  325 

Khmer,  inscriptions  at  Chan- 
taburi,  45  i 

Khmer,  ancient  language  of 
the,  450,  568-69 
Khmer  (Kambodians),  race  of, 
100,  103,  106,  107,  108, 
109,  118,  I2I,  122,  173, 

175 

Khom  (Kambodian)  Alphabet 
Khrut  (Garud.i),  a mythical 
monstrous  bird,  a “ roc,” 
485,  509,  523 

Kings  of  Siamese  dynasties : — 
Ligor,  169,  171  ; Sukhothai- 
Sawankalok  : — Sri  Damma- 
raja,  169;  Taksila  Maha 
Nakon,  170;  Apayagamuni,' 
174;  Arunawati  Ruang  ; 
Phra  Sucharat  177;  Phits- 
anulok  : — Sudhamma  Raja, 
178;  Lopburi : — Kesara 
Sima,  179;  Kong  Sano : — 
Narai,  1 80-81;  Suphanburi : 
— Phra  Chao  U Thong,  182- 


8 3 ; Ayuthia : — Ramathi- 
bodi,  182-83  ; Phra  Chao 
Chang  Pheuak,”  185, 
Maha  Indra,  185-86;  Phra 
Naret,  187-89;  Phra  Chao 
Prasat  Thong  (Phaya  Suri- 
wongse),  189  ; Phra  Narai, 
189-93;  Phra  Pet  Rache, 
193  ; the  Uparach  Mong- 
kut,  194;  Somdet  Phra 
Maha  Bovv^arn  Sucharit, 
195;  of  Siam  : — Phaya  Ta  k 
Sin,  196-98;  Somdet  Phra 
Budayot  Fa  (Buddha  Yot 
Fa,  Puta  Yot  Fa),  198-200; 
Somdet  Phra  Budalot  La, 
200-2  ; Somdet  Phra  Chao 
Praset  Thong  (Phra  Nang 
Klao),  203  ; Somdet  Phra 
Paramindr  Maha  Mongkut, 
204-7  ; Somdet  Phra 
Paramindr  Maha  Chula- 
longkorn,  207-15;  Somdet 
Phra  Paramindr  Maha  Vaji- 
ravudh,  213 

Klang  (Klong)  Rang  Sit” 
see  ‘‘‘‘Khlang  (Khlong)  Rang 
Sit” 

Klong,  see  Khlong 
Koh,  island 
Koh  Chang,  is.,  5 
Koh  Kong,  is.,  5 
Koh  Kut,  is.,  5 
Koh  Pungun,  is.,  5 
Koh  Samui,  is.,  5 
Kolek,  a Malay  sea  - canoe, 
410 

Kols,  1 01 

Korat,or  Nakhon  Racha  Sima, 
proz'.,  9,  30,  1 18,  448 
Korat  plateau,  13,  20 


620 


INDEX 


Korat,  30,  31,  66,  374, 
441,  448 

Kra,  or  Kraw,  Isthmus  of,  10 
Kra,  or  Kraw,”  2 
Krabin,  see  Kabin 
Krishna,  171 

Kromakajt,  a sort  of  Justice  of 
the  Peace,  252 

Krom  Khurj,  Krorn  Luang,  Krom 
Mun,  Krom  Phra  (official 
rank  of  princes),  216,  217 
Krting,  a capital  city,  21 
Krung  Khao  the  old  capital,” 
see  Ayuthia 

Krung  Tep,  ‘"The  Heavenly 
Royal  City,”  see  Bangkok 
Kshatri^-a,  a warrior  caste. 
Brahman  sect  of  ancient  or 
mythical  origin,  169,  478 
Kublai  Khan,  106,  l8l 
Kudi,  dwelling  places  of  monks 
in  the  Wat,  500 
Kuwi,  Kawi  Kwi,  Kui,  or 
Lahu  Hsi,  tribe,  104,  108, 

1 3.3 

Kuwi,  or  Muang  Kwi,  prov. 

and  6,  10,  15 
Kwi,  see  Kuwi 
Kzvien,  a kind  of  wagon,  312 

Laboratory,  Bacteriological, 
63, 277 

Labong,  Lampluin  Chai  (an- 
ciently Haribunjaya),  172, 

173,  H9 

Labour,  139,  141 
Lacquer-work,  429,  430,  431 
Lahu,  see  Muh-so 
Lahu  Hsi,  see  Kuwi 
Lahuna,  see  Muh-so 
Lakes  (Tale  Sap),  13,  20,  21 


Lakhon  (country),  see  Nakhon 
Lakhon,  the  legitimate  Siamese 
drama,  470 

Lakhon,  Nakhon  Sri  Tham- 
marat  (Tammarat),  Nak- 
hon Sri  Dhammaraj  or  Ligor, 
prov.  and  10,  ii,  15, 

171,  182,  189,  190,  367, 
415,  448,  450 

Lakhon  Lampang  or  Muang 
Lakhon,  prov.  and  t.,  94, 

159 

Lakon,  see  Lakhon 
Lakshmi,  452,  534 
Lamet,  clan,  123 
Lamphun,  or  Lamphun  Chai, 
t.,  see  Labong 

Lands  and  Agriculture,  287- 
90  ; Ministry  of,  238,  287- 
90,  322-7 

Land  reclamation,  293 
Land  Records  Department, 
288 

Land,  Rights  in,  288 
Land  Taxes,  257 
Land,  the  property  of  the 
Crown,  2 19 

Languages  in  Siam,  loi, 
102,  106,  107,  1 13,  I 14, 
I I 5,  1 18,  1 19,  120,  121, 
125,  128,  130,  133,  135, 
159,  160,  551-69,  588-89 
Language,  Literature  and  Bib- 
liography of  Siam,  551-91 
Lanten  Yao,  clan,  136-37 
Lao,  tribe,  6,  7,  9,  105,  106, 
108,  109,  157-62,  171, 

172,  177,  178,  181,  3C0 
Lao  and  Khmer,  fusion,  178 
Lao  Pung  Dam,  clan,  i 57 
Lao  Pung  Khao,  clan,  i 57 


INDEX 


621 


Lao  Song  Dam,  clan,  159 
Lao  States,  2,  6,  7,  157,  158, 
159,  172,  173,  177,  178, 
179,  180,  181,  182 
h:xo~Ta\, family,  105,  106, 108, 
167,  168,  568 

Laterite  soil,  32,  88  ; Sand- 
stone, 446,  447 
Latitude  of  Siam,  2 
Law,  232,  279-87 
Law  Courts,  200,  208,  280- 
8+ 

Lawa  or  L’wa,  103,  104, 
108,  121-23,  300 
Lawapuri,  see  Lopburi 
Law  of  Judicial  Organisation, 
287 

Laws,  285-86,  571,  576-77 
Law  School,  232,  282 
Lawek, 187 
Lawo,  see  Lopburi 
Lead  itakoa),  91,  95,  605 
Leases,  mining,  360 
Legal  literature,  571,  576-77 
Legations,  241 

Lek,  Lek  Sui,  a division  of  the 
people,  220-22 
Lem  Tun,  district,  88 
Liant,  Cape,  4 

Library, the  Royal, 43 2, 5 75-76 
Licenses,  prospecting,  360 
‘‘  Life  of  the  Buddha,”  477-79 
Lightering  and  Loading,  411- 
I 2 

Ligor,  see  Lakhon 
Limestone,  14,  86-89,91,92, 
97 

Linear  measure,  270-71,  607 
Ling  Lorn,  “wind  monkey,”  64 
Liquor  problem,  262  ; Im- 
ports, 393-94 


Lishaw,  tribe,  104,  108,  135 
Literature,  167,  168,  569-77 
Livestock,  31,  i 30,  137 
Loa  Chin  Cha,  the  “ swing  ” 
festival,  528-3  i 
Loans,  state,  268-69,  419 
LoiKh7'athongcc.vQ.morvy  (setting 
afloat  offerings  on  the  river), 
525-26 

Longitude  of  Siam,  2 
Lopburi  Channel  (an  eastern 
branch  of  the  Menam, 
named  from  the  /.),  16,  17 
Lopburi, and  formerly 
Lawapuri  and  Lawo,  17 1, 
179,  180,  193,  418,  447, 
448,  449  452 

Loubere,  de  la,  138,  218,  364, 
532,  580 

Lotteries,  141,  155 
Love  Songs  {Iddon  pet  ton),  574 
Lu,  tribe,  106,  108,  162-63 
Luang,  a minor  official  title, 

239 

Luang  Peng,  an  “ interpreter 
of  the  law,”  280 
Luang  Prabang,  /,  and  prov., 
2,  3,  124,  158,  1 86,  I 88 
Luk  Kiln,  the  old  High  Court 
at  Bangkok  (also  the  old 
Appeal  Court),  280 

Macassars,  people  of  Macas- 
sar, 103 

McCarthy,  J.,  129,  586 
Mace,  55 

Magadha,an  ancient  kingdom, 
480 

Magistrates’  Courts,  281 
Maha,  great,  a title  applied 


6z2 


INDEX 


both  to  monks  and  to 
royalty,  495 

Mahatlek,  Royal  Pages,  219 
Maha  Wat,  principal  monk  or 
abbot  of  a monastery,  494 
Mahommedanism,  114,  115, 
21 1, 476, 477, 550-51 
Mai,  wood,  timber 
Mai  sak,  teak 

Maize,  khao  phot,  127,  131, 
165,  321 

Malacca,  182,  183 
Malacca,  Straits  of,  2 
Malay  Dependencies  of  Siam, 
6,  212 

Malay  Peninsula,  2,  iio,  21 1, 
2 I 2 

Malay  race,  6,  12,  103,  104, 
108,  109,  1 14-17,  21 1 
Malay  States,  British,  2,  1 1 
MAupre,  proz’.,  3 
Mammals,  see  Fauna 
Man,  Neolithic  in  Siam,  98-99 
Mangrove,  44,  348-49,  602 
Manners  and  Customs,  see 
Customs 

Manufactures,  66,  96,  123, 
13c  132,  135^  166,  297, 

371-73.  428,  429-38,  440- 

41 

Marble,  87 

Marriage  Customs,  112,  115, 
123,  127,  130,135,151-53, 

165 

Marriage,  Interracial,  iio, 

114.  137 

Martaban  ” (celadon)  ware, 

372 

Martaban,/,  and  prov.,  187, 
194, 197, 198-99 
Mason,  Dr.  I.,  63 


Massie,  Dr.  89 
Maulmain,  see  Moulmein 
Maw  Du,  a phi  seer,  545-46 
Maya,  Queen,  477 
Meals,  147 

Meao,  Meao-tsu,  Miaotzu, 
Meow  or  Meo,  tribe,  104, 
108,  128-30 
Meao-tsu,  see  Meao 
Measures,  weight,  linear,  area 
capacity,  cubic  and  time, 
269-74,  607-8 
Meat,  I 26,  147 
Medical  schools,  231,  232 
Medical  Officer  of  Sanitary 
Department,  277 
Mehkong,  r.  (also  ‘‘  Mekhong  ” 
or  “Mekong”),  2,  3,  6,  7, 
9,  13,  15,  19-20,  21,  89, 
100,  104,  105,  106 
Meh  Ping,  see  Meping,  181 
Meklong,  or  Menam  Khwa, 
3,  6,  18-19 

Mekong  (Mekhong),  see  Meh- 
kong 

Menam  (Me  -t-  Nam),  mother 
or  chief  of  waters,  river 
Menam,  15,  16,  18 
Menam  Chao  Phaya,  r.,  5,  6, 
7,  15-18,  19,  22,  44,  97, 
275>  278,  369.  374.  376, 
379.  4'  ■ 

Menam  Khwa  (Kwa),  r.,  see 
Meklong 

Menam  Khwa  (Kwa)  Noi,  r., 
tributary  of  Meklong,  19 
Menam  Noi,  r.,  16 
Meo,  see  Meao 
Meow,  see  Meao 
Meping  (Meh  Ping),  r.,  3, 
15,  181 


INDEX 


623 


Merchants,  early  European, 
189 

Mergui,  t.  and  182,  183, 

188,  189,  190,  194,  197, 

199.  +13 

Meru  {Phra  Min'),  Buddhist 
Legendary  Mountain,  483, 

539 

Metal-casting,  166,  428 
Metal-working,  123,  131,132, 
135,  166,  428 
Metals,  90-96,  604-6 
Meteorology,  3 i 
Method  of  reckoning  time, 
273»  274_ 

Metre  (poetic),  572-75 
Mewang,  r.,  i 5 
Meyom,  r.,  15,  168 
Miaotzu,  Meao 
Military  roads,  414-15 
Military  Service,  119,  208, 
245-48  ; Schools,  232,  247 
Military  Surveys,  289 
Millet,  I 27,  I 32,  602 
Minerals,  86-97,  360,  604, 
606 

Mines,  5,  18,  91-92,  360-66 
Mines  and  Mineralogy  De- 
partment, 258,  359,  360, 
362 

Mines  and  Mining,  359-66 
Mining  leases,  360 
Mining  rights,  360 
Ministries  of  State,  see  De- 
partments of  State 
Mint, the  Royal,  264,  265, 266 
Missionaries,  120,  233,  234, 
549-50;  Missionary  schools, 
229,  233,  234 

Modelling  in  clay  and  stucco, 
426,  428 


Mogadok,  mtn.,  i 5 
Mollusca,  see  Fauna 
Mom  Chao,  Mom  Luang,  Mom 
Rache  Wongs  (titles  given  to 
children  of  various  ranks), 
216,  217 
Mon,  see  Mom 

Mon  {also  ^^Mohn,'"^  pr.  Mazvn) 
race  =■  Burm.  Talaing),  2, 
103,  108,  109,  I I 8-20 
M6n-Annam,  family,  100-4, 
108 

M6n-Khmer,yfz;////y,  167, 168- 

71 

Monasteries,  497-505 
Monastery  schools,  229 
Monastic  Order  of  Buddhism, 
487-88 

Mong  (a  gong),  462,  463^ 
Mong  (a  measure  of  time), 
274 

Monkey,  “Wind”  {LingLom), 
64 

Monkhood,  Buddhist,  149-50, 
491-505 

Monks,  Buddhist,  149-50, 

495-97,  501-5 

Monopoly,  Royal  Trade,  220 
Monsoon,  34 
Months  (Siamese),  273 
Monton,  an  administrative  divi- 
sion, 7 

Moradop,  a small  temple  or 
shrine  covering  a Phrabat, 
512 

Morality,  160 
Motor-cars,  415,  504,  509 
Mouhot,  Henri,  63,  89,  444, 

583 , 

Moulding  in  clay  and  stucco, 
426,  428 


624 


INDEX 


Moulmein  (Maulmain), 

292,  372,  397 
Mountains,  13-15,  18,  89 
Muang,  headquarters  of  a 
province,  21 

Muang  prov.  and  96, 

131 

Muang  Kut,  t.,  95 
Muang  Kwi,  see  Kuwi 
Muang  Lakhon,  see  Lakon 
Lampang 

Muang  Taksila, 18 1 
Muang  Nan,  A,  96 
Muang  prov.,  2,  104 
Mueng  slaan,  364 
Muhso,  Lahu  or  Lahuna,  tribe, 
104,  108,131-32;  ancient 
kingdom  of,  131' 

Muller,  Max,  Prof,  100 
Miln,  a minor  official  title,  239 
Music,  112,  132,  133,  141, 
154,  161,  162,  459-69; 
Love  songs,  574 
Music,  Dancing  and  the 
Dmma,  459-75 
Musical  Instruments,  1 12-13, 
133,  161-62,  461-67 
Musical  scale'  or  “ gamut,” 
459;  system,  459;  training, 

459 

Na,  a rice-held,  304 
“Naga,”  a dragon-like  being 
of  the  underworld,  161, 
174-75  ; King  of  the  Naga, 

530 

Nagara  {Skt.),  see  Nakhon 
Nagara  Jaya  Sri,  see  Nakhon 
Chai  Si  ipr  Chaisi) 

Nai  Ampo,  official  head  of 
Amp'd,^^  252 


dragon,  509,  523 
Nak,  Phaya,  the  Giver  of 
rain,”  530 

Nakhon  {Skt.  Nagara)  same  as 
Lakhon 

Nakhon  Chaisi  or  Chai  Si 
(Nagara  Jaya  Sri),  prov., 
formerly  Sri  Wijaya  or 
Samarattha ; also  Suphan 
or  Suphanburi,  8,  170 
Nakhon  Nayok,  mtns.,  14; 

piov.  I 8 ; n,  1 8 
Nakhon  Racha  Sima,  see  Korat 
Nakhon  Sawan,  H.  R.  H. 
Prince  of,  248 

Nakhon  Sawan,  and  A, 

1,  8,  15,  31,  94,  181, 

182 

Nakhon  (Nakon)  Sri  Dham- 
maraj,  see  Lakhon 
Nakhon  (Nakon)  Sri  Tham- 
marat  (Tammarat),  see 
Lakhon 

Nakon,  see  Nakhon 
Aam,  water  (esp.  stream  or 
river) 

Nam  Ing,  r.,  20 

Nam  Koh,  r.,  20 

Nam  Kun,  r.,  2 1 

Nam  Mun,  r.,  3,  6,  19,  20 

Nam  Ngau,  r.,  91,  163 

Nam  Ngop,  r.,  96 

Nam  Sak,  r.,  17,  93 

Nam  Si,  r.,  6,  20 

Nam  tan  or  Tart,  59 

Nam  Wa,  r.,  94 

Nan,  ptov.  and  A,  94,  135, 

159^415 

N ane,  monastic  novices,  494 
Nang  Klao,  King  of  Siam, 
203-4 


INDEX 


Nang  Mani  Mekhala,  goddess 
of  highliving,  433 
Nang  Thalung  or  Nang  Phat- 
halung,  The  Leather  of 
Phathalung,”  shadow  plays 
exhibited  in  the  Malay  pro- 
vinces, 473 

Narat  (poetry),  mixed  metre, 

573  . 

Nati  (time),  a minute 
National  Debt,  269 
National  expenditure,  261  ; 
revenue,  261 

Naung,  swamp  fishery,  335 
Naung  Han,  /.,  in  Eastern 
Siam,  21 

Naval  Service,  compulsory, 
1 19,  246 

Navigation,  river,  15-20,  402 
Navy,  221,  248-49 
Nawng  Kai,  20 
Neale,  J.  H.,  388,  582 
Negrito  race,  99,  107,  108, 
1 10 

Negrito  (‘‘Semang”)  tj'ibe,  see 
Semang 

Neolithic  period,  98,  99,  445 
Nepotism,  294 
Nets,  fishing,  330,  335-38 
Newspapers,  590-91 
Ngiou,  Nigiow  or  Thai  Yai 
(Shan)  tribe,  2,  106,  108, 
162 

Ngiow,  see  Ngiou 
“Nine  Gems”  (Nop  Keao), 
Order  of  the,  226 
Nirvana,  481,  482,  484,  492 
Niti  literature,  570 
Nobility,  216-19,  ^39"4^ 
Nong  Sano  {^arnao),  Shar-i- 
Nao  or  Shaher-al-Nani, 

2 R 


625 

ancient  cap.  and  prov.,  29, 
180-82 

Nora  Singh  (mythical  animals), 

. . . 

Norodom,  King  of  Kambodia, 

206-7 

Northern  Siam,  6,  7,  87 
Northern  State  Railway,  162, 
418-20 

Notes,  Bank  and  Government, 
268,  607 

Novices,  monastic,  494 
Nuns,  Buddhist,  Chi  Song,  495 
Nutmegs  {ton  chan),  55,  321, 
603 

Oates,  E.  W.,  63 
Offices,  Public,  294 
Official  titles,  218-19,  238-40 
Ok  Wasan  (“  issue  from  ” the 
rainy  season),  end  of  the 
Buddhist  Lent,  506 
Opium,  135,  137,  261,  262, 
365  ; imports,  394,  607 
Orchestral  Music,  162,  467 
Orders  and  Decorations,  226- 
27 

Ores,  Tin,  92;  Iron,  etc.,  95  ; 
various,  604-6 

Oil,  various  kinds  of,  40,  53, 
128,  321 

Orchestras,  open-air  {bimhat), 

467 

Ordination  ofBuddhistMonks, 
149-50,  495-97 
Ornaments,  personal,  134, 
144,  164;  tattooing,  157- 

Pack  AW,  mtn.,  I 3 
Pachim,  see  Prachim 


6z6 


INDEX 


Paddle  (of  boat),  phai,  403- 
404 

Pages,  Corps  of  Royal,  Mahat- 
lek,  219,  226 

Pages,  Royal  (^^cha”),  239 

Pahom  (scarf),  144 

Pai  clariy  i 23 

Painting,  438-40 

Paklao,  94 

Paknam,  A,  416 

Paknampoh,  A,  15,  16,  17, 

3D  358 

Pakret,  A,  359 
Palaces,  Royal,  23,  25,  193 
Palaeontology,  89 
Palaung  or  Rumai,  trlbe^  i 24 
Pali  (in  Siamese  vernacular 
“Bali”),  229,  553,  554, 
557  ; inscriptions,  450 
Pallegoix,  Bishop,  109,  110, 

345. 582 

Panom  Pok,  intn.,  i 3 
Pantanai,  minor  official  title, 

239 

Panting,  the  well-known  Siam- 
ese waist-wrapper  used  by 
both  sexes,  119,  142-43 
Paper  Currency,  267-68,  607 
Parasuyana,  see  Ramasura 
Parien,  monk  who  has  passed 
the  nine  grades  entitled  to 
prefix  Malta,  494 
Patalung,  see  Phathalung 
Patani,  Malay  Division  of, 
special  Judicial  Courts,  282 
Patani  prov.,  A and  r.,  4,  5, 
10,  1 I,  20,  95,  97,  190, 

376, 378 

Patat  mins.,  4,  14,  18,  89 
Patthomma  (Pathomma)  ^om- 
phothl^an,  The  Life  of 


Buddha,”  477,  510,  570; 
translated  by  Alabaster,  477 
Pavie,  M.,  444,  586 
Pa  Wing,  mtn.,  13 
Payong,  a kind  of  Malay 
“ Prahu  ” used  esp.  for 
fishing  off  the  East  Coast  of 
the  Mai.  Pen.),  410 
Peasantry,  Siamese  or  Thai, 
138-41 

Pegu,  prov.  and  A,  170,  171, 
179,  180,  184,  185,  186, 
187,  194 

Penal  code  (1908),  286 
Penang,  A and  prov.,  5,  12 
Penates,  Siamese,  or  tutelary 
deities,  520 

Pepper  (/)/5n/^),  12,53,  315-16, 
603 

Periodicals,  Siamese,  590-91 
Perils,  state,  1 1 

Petchabunor  Petchaburi,y>r^ir'. 
and  A,  7,  17 

Petchaburi  or  Petchabun, 
formerly  Pipli,  A,  413,  418 
Pet  Rache,  King  of  Ayuthia, 
193 

Petriu,  A,  18,  29,  30,  367, 
420 

Petroleum,  96  ; imports,  393 
Phathalung,  A,  10,  415,473 
Phazuana,  one  of  the  medita- 
tions of  the  monks,  503 
Phaya,  an  official  title,  239 
Phaya  PIM,  King  of  Nagas,  a 
rain  deity,  530 

Phaxa  Pan  Thong,  a noble  of 
“the  Golden  Bowl,”  528 
Phi  (a  ghost),  484,  490,  539- 

+9 

Phi,  name  of  a Shrine  {San 


INDEX 


627 


Chao  Hazu  Klong)  at  Bang- 
kok, 541-42 

Philosophy,  the,”  Phra  Bara- 
mat  (Abhidharma),  480 
Phitsanulok, and  7,  87, 
178,  179,  182,  447 
Pklu  betel ’’-vine  leaf),  53, 

321,  600 

Phra,  chief,  an  official  title,  239 
Phra,  a title  applied  to  monks, 
+97 

Phra  Arahang!  petitionary 
chant  for  dying  persons,  154 
Phra  Baramat  (Abidharma), 
480 

Phrachedi  Pagodas  ” or 
Stupa),  184;  Buddhist 
type  of  shrine  with  tapering 
spire,  455,  500 
Phra  In  (Indra),  Tezuada,  King 
of  one  of  the  Lower 
Heavens,  522,  528,  529, 

530 

Phra  In  Suen,”  Shiva,  452, 

531  ^ 

Phra  Khan,  the  four-armed 
Lord  of  Darkness  and  Death, 
5+2^ 

Phra  Klong  (Khlang  or  Khl- 
ong),  corrupted  into  “ Bark- 
along  ” by  Europeans,  chief 
Controller  of  the  King’s 
Purse,  259 

Phra  Men,  Mount  Meru,  sub- 
central mountain,  surroun- 
ded by  Chakrazvan,  483,  539 
Phra  Mokalaw,  early  disciple 
of  Buddha,  500 
Phra  Narai,  King  of  Nong 
Sano,  180-81 
Phra  Narai  (Vishnu),  452 


Phra  Naret  (Lakshmi),  452 
Phra  Naret,  King  of  Ayuthia, 
187-89 

Phra  Ong  Chao,  a title  applied 
to  some  children  of  royalty, 
2 1 6 

Thra  Thim,  the  stamped 
god,”  clay  tablets  on  which 
the  images  of  deities,  etc., 
have  been  stamped,  451 
Phra  Phuttha  Chao,  the 
Buddha,  477 

Phra  Rama,  the  Judge  of  Souls, 
500 

Phra  Sanghachai,  name  of  a 
supposed  dispenser  of  rain 
and  fecundity,  500 
Phra  Sariput,  a saint,  an  early 
disciple  of  Buddha,  500 
Phra  Seu  Muang,  a Brahman 
deity,  542 

Phra  Song,  a title  applied  to 
monks,  497 

Phra  Sut  (Suttra),  Sermons  for 
the  Laity,  480 

Phra  Todong,  encamping  pil- 
grim monks,  493 
Phra  Torani,  a saint,  the 
Goddess  of  the  Earth,  500 
Phra  IVlnai  (Vinaya),  the  first 
Basket,”  or  Rules  of 
Buddhist  Order,  480 
Phrabat,  or  Phra  Phuttha  Bat, 
site  of  the  “ Holy  Foot- 
print,” 432,  512 
Phrabat  Si  Roi,  5 i 3 
Phrapadon,  448 
Phrapatam,  site  of  cap.  of 
Sn  Wijaya,  31,  255,  448, 
450,  452,  500 

Phraprang,  Brahman  type  of 


6z8 


INDEX 


shrine,  with  blunt  angular 
spire,  448,  455,  500 
Phratabong  (Phra  Tabong) 
now  Battambong,  prov.  of 
Kambodia  annexed  by  Siam, 
now  French,  ruins  of  Autg- 
kor  Thom  (anc.  cap.  of 
Kambodia),  202 
Phrik,  see  Pepper 
Phu  Khao  Thong  Golden 
Hill”),  “Fair,”  513-14 
Phutson,  a sacred  flower,  5 1 1 
Phutthasakamt  (Puta-Sakkarat), 
“ Religious  era  of  time,” 
272,  273 

Physical  Features,  13 
Physionomy,  iii,  115,  122, 
125,  131,  134,  141,  159 
Physique,  98,  99,  1 19,  122, 
125,  131,  134,  159,  163, 
164 

P/,  a reed  instrument,  464 ; 
Javanese  {Pt  Chazud),  a reed 
instrument,  464 
Pichai,  A,  182 
Pichit,  A,  182 

Pig  or  Hog,  mu,  69,  137,  594; 
Wild,  mu  pa,  69,  137,  346, 
.594 

Pilotage,  412 
Pimai,  ancient  t.,  447 
Pipli,  see  Petchaburi 
Pitaka  (Pali),  see  Tral  Pitok 
Pitch,  38,  40 

Pitsanulok,  see  Phitsanulok 
Pla,  see  Fish 

Pla  Chazvn,  a kind  of  fish 
(Ophiocephalus) 

Plateau,  of  Korat,  i 3 
Ploughing  Ceremony,  the 
First,  {Rek  Na),  531-38 


Pnom  Dang  Rek,  mtns.,  3, 
14,  18 

Poetical  literature,  571-75 
Poetry,  371-75 
Police  (Bangkok),  275-76 
Police  (provincial),  see  Gen- 
darmerie 

Poll  tax,  see  Capitation  tax 
Polygamy,  123,  135,  153 
Pongs awadan  (annals  or  chron- 
icles), Krung  Khao,  168; 
Muang  Nud,  167 
Population,  9,  12,  22,  27,  28, 
29,  30,  108-10;  tribes, 

■°9>.i33.  164 

Porcelain,  371-72;  Painting, 
439  ; Bencharong  ware,  440 
Portuguese  in  Siam,  190,  377 
Post  and  Telegraph  Depart- 
ment, 291-93 
Post  Office,  291-92 
Postage  Stamps,  292 
Pottery,  371-73 
Poultry,  x37 

Prachim,  p?^ov.  and  A,  3,  18, 
I18 

Prahu  (Mai.),  see  also  payong, 
410 

Prai,  see  Corvee  labour 
Prasat  Thong,  King  of  Siam, 
see  Nang  Klao 

Prasat  Thong  (Phaya  Suri- 
wongse).  King  of  Ayuthia, 
189 

Pre,  159,  415 
Presbyterian  Mission,  Ameri- 
can, 233,  234,  550^  ^ 

Preta,  a wandering  spirit,  484 
Prathum  {Pj'atum),  the  sacred 
water-lily,  440,  602 
Pratu  Pi  {Phi),  “ the  Gate  of 


INDEX 


Ghosts,”  name  given  to 
the  crematorium  at  Bang- 
kok, 157 
Prikj  see  Phrik 
Printing,  207,  256,  576-77 
Products,  12,  38,  43,  46,  48, 
50,  52-59,  61,  66,  75,  87, 
88,  298,  315-22,  327-75 
Pronunciation,  555-56 
Prose  literature,  569-71 
Prospecting  licences,  360 
Protectorates,  French,  3 
Public  Buildings  and  Offices, 
294 

Public  Health,  Department  of, 
277 

Public  Services,  294,  295 
Public  Works  Department, 
294 

Puket  or  Tongkah,/);-^:'.  and 
4,  12,  28,  53,  92,  282,  362 
Pumps,  for  irrigation,  324, 

325 

Pu  Prap,  the  Deliverer  of 
Judgment,”  in  old  Law 
Courts  of  Siam,  280 
Puta-Sakke'rat,  see  Puttha-Sak- 
arat 

Pu  Wa  Rachakan  Muang,  a 
‘^Governor”  replacing  older 
‘‘  Chao  Mueng^’’  252 
Pu  Tai  Ban,  village  headman, 
308 

Quartz,  88  ; sand,  87,  88 

Races  of  Siam,  97-166 
Racha  Si,  a mythical  lion  en- 
closed in  a circle,  used  as 
decorative  figure,  436 
Raheng,  L,  15,  19,  31,  413 


629 

Rai  (a  surface  measure  ”), 
239,  271,  608 

Railways,  29,  30,  162,  208, 

4-15-23 

Rainfall,  33  ; Rainy  season,  i 7, 
506 

Ram,  nights  of  waning  moon, 
a “measure  of  time” 
“Rambong”  (Mai.),  a kind  of 
native  rubber,  398 
“ Ramasura  ” (Parasurama), 
433 

Ranat,  xylophone  or  harmoni- 
ca, 463 

Rangoon,  t.,  398 
Ratanakosindr-sok,  an  era  of 
time,  272,  273 

Ratburi,  H.R.H.  Prince  of, 
285^ 

Ratburi,  prozf.  and  8,  19, 
31,  182,  418,  448 
Rattan,  ivai,  128,  351,  603 
Record  of  Rights  over  Land, 
288 

Reed-organ  of  the  Lao  {Ken), 
much  appreciated  in  Siam, 
133,  161,  464-65 
Reform,  opposition  to,  208 
Registration,  Land,  288 
Rek  Na,  “First  Ploughing” 
ceremony,  531-38 
Relationship,  tribal,  10 1 
Religion,  476-550;  of  the 
tribes,  1 1 2,  i 14,  i i 5,  i 16, 

I 1 7,  119,  126,  128,  I 32, 

I 34,  149,  160,  161,  163 
Reptiles,  see  Fauna 
Resins,  38,  128 
Revenue,  national,  208,  261 
Revenue  Department,  257- 
58,  278 


630 


INDEX 


Revenue  Survey,  289 
Rhyme,  572 
Rhythm,  metrical,  572 
Rice,  Khao,  16,  18,  30,  31, 
123,  127,  132,  135,  137, 
146,  165,  202,  298-313, 
323,  367-69,  388-90,  405- 
406,  603,  606 

Rice-growing  ceremonies  and 
festivals,  298,  527-38,  532 
Rice-milling,  146-47,  367-69 
Richelieu,  Admiral  de,  248 
Rights  in  Land,  Records  of, 
288  ; Mining,  360 
River  dwellings,  146 
River  navigation,  15-20,  402- 

13 

River  offerings  {Lol  Khratho?ig), 

525-26 

River  transport,  401-13 
Rivers  of  Siam,  15-20 
Rivers, flooding  of,  17,  323-24 
Roads,  277,  293,  413-15 
Roman  Catholics,  120,  192, 
233,  549 

Rong  tam^  the  lecture  hall  in 
a zvat,  500 
Rua,  boats,  403-9 
Rubber,  54,  315,  398 
Rumai,  see  Palaung,  124 
Rimana  (Mai.  reband),  a “tam- 
bourine,” 462 

Sacrifices,  135,  137 
Sdgo7'  (Mai.),  a “dugout,”  tree- 
canoe,  410,  411 
Sai  Cheng,  r.  (5^?i=sand),  18 
Sai  Yai,  r.,  18 
Sailors,  Siamese,  41 1 
Sajanalaya,  see  Sawankalok 


“ Saka,”  see  “ Sakkharat  ” 

Sakai  (Mai.),  a wild  jungle  race 
of  the  MalayPeninsula,  indi- 
viduals of  which  were  once 
commonly  kept  by  Malay 
Rajas  and  others  as  “slaves,” 
99,  107,  108,  III,  1 12 
^akdl  (Mai.  sakti),  a minor 
title  of  rank,  carrying  lesser 
rights  to  rice  lands,  239 
^akhi  {Sdke)y  breadfruit 
Salang,  see  Chalang 
Saba,  the  rest-house  of  a zvaty 
a rest-house  in  general,  500 
Salt,  kleudy  96-97  ; brine  wells, 
96;  “salt  pans,”  96,  97 
Saltpetre,  66,  97;  from  guano, 
66,97;  method  of  manufac- 
ture, 97 

Salwin,  r.,  Burmese  frontier 
of  North-west  Siam,  3,  6, 
7,  13,  15,  391 
Samarattha,  see  Sri  Wijaya 
Samit,  Cape,  3,  4,  6 
Sam  Peng,  the  Chinese 
quarter  of  Bangkok,  26 
Sam  Sam,  Siamo-Malay  half- 
breeds,  12,  106,  108,  164 
Sam  Sao,  rntn.,  13 
Samut  Song  Kram,  /.,  19 
Sam  7 am  (time),  third  watch, 
3-6  a.m.,  274 

Sa7i  Chao  Lak  Mueng  (“shrine 
of  the  Lord  of  the  Pillar  of 
the  Country  ”),  541 
San  Dika,  the  Supreme  Court 
of  Appeal,  28  I 
Sand,  saiy  605 

Sands  of  Central  Siam,  87,  88 
Sandstone,  hln  sal,  87,  88, 
89,92,446,  447,448,605; 


INDEX 


Sandstone,  red,  hhi  sal  de?sg, 
87,  88,  605 

Sangkhas'ach,  Head  of  the 
Church,  ^93 

Sanitary  Department,  276-78 
Sanitary  Department,  Direc- 
tor-General of,  277 
San  PhraPhm,  ^‘ghost-houses,” 

Sanskrit  inscriptions,  450 
Sapphires  {Jsin  SiKram  Kazcn), 
87,  93,  94>  +38.  60; 
Saraburi,  and  A,  17,  31, 

4 ^ 4- 

Sarong  (Mah),  a skirt -like 
wrapper,  worn  by  both 
sexes,  resembling  a long 
but  pleatless  kilt,  116 
Sazv,  two-stringed  or  three- 
stringed viols,  466 
Sazvan,  the  Lower  Heavens, 
481 

Sawankalok  (Sajanalaya),  /, 

76,  169,  182,  317,  43.6, 
++8 

Schmitt,  Rev.  Pere,  167 
Schoolboys,  Siamese,  234-35 
Schools,  120,  149,  229-35, 
247,  258,  289-90,  373 
Scott,  Sir  George,  132,  134, 
164 

Sculpture,  425-28  ; see  also 
Archaeology,  Architecture, 
etc. 

Seasons,  17,  31-35 
Senabodi,  the  “ Council  of 
Ministers,”  259 
Semang,  a wild  jungle  (Ne- 
grito) race  of  Mai.  Pen.,  i 2, 
99,  107,  108,  1 1 1-14,  346 
Sericulture,  31,  373-74 


63  I 

“ Sermons  for  the  Laity,”  Phra 
Sut  (Suttra),  480 
Serpent-worship,  161,  487 
Sesamum  {nga),  320-21 
“ Shah  Bandar^''  an  official 
corresponding  to  Harbour 
Master  under  the  old(native) 
regime,  279 

Shahr-i-Nao  or  Shaher-al- 
Naui,  see  Nong  Sano 
Shan  dynasty,  106 
Shan  States,  British,  2,  158; 
French,  2 

Shan  race,  see  Ngiou 
Shipping,  384,  385-86 
Shipping  lines,  4 1 i - 1 3 
Ship5,  380,  382-84 
Shiva  (Phra  In  Suen),  452, 
5 3 -f 

Shrines,  446,  455,  54I--1-9 
Siam,  hlain  Divisions,  6 ; 
Northern,  6,  7 ; Central, 
7 ; Eastern,  6,  7,  9 ; South- 
ern, 6,  9,  10,  II,  12 
Siam,  Gulf  of,  see  Gulf  of 
Siam 

“ Siam  Jars,”  373 
“Siam,”  origin  of  name,  179, 
2 I I 

Slam  Raj,'''  legend  on  coins, 
266 

Siamese  Alphabet,  origin  of, 

1757  176 

“Siamese  Jars,”  372,  373 
Siamese  Language,  works  on, 
588-89 

Siamese  Ministers  of  Legation, 
119,  219-37 

Siamese  or  Thai  race,  91,  97, 
101-6,  108,  137-57,  168; 
origin  of,  98,  107 


632 


INDEX 


Sibsong,  see  Sipsong 
Si  Chang  (Sichang)  tsds,  5,411 
Siddhartha  (Prince  Sithat), 
the  child  Buddah,  150,439, 

, 478 

Siemrap, /me,  3 
Silk,  31,  373  ; weaving,  373- 
^ 74;  growing,  31,  374 
Silver  (figeiin)^  91,  605,  see 
also  Jewellery 
Silver  Coinge,  264-67 
Silver-working,  131-32,  135, 
161,  433-37;  “Niello”  or 
Thompat,  435 

Singing,  112,  141,  460-61, 
468-69,  568  ; Convention- 
alisms, 468  ; Training  in, 
468  ; In  Schools,'  469  ; 
Dramatic,  469  ; of  Semang, 
1 12;  of  Siamese  or  Thai, 
1 4 1 

Singora  (Songkla),  /.  and 
harbour,  5,  ii,  415;  In- 
land Sea  of.  Tale  Sap,  5,10, 
20 

Sipsong  Chutai,  104 
Sipsong  Panna,  104,  162 
Sisophon, 3 
Sithat,  Prince  (Siddhartha), 
the  child  Buddha,  150,439, 
478 

Sisya,  monastic  boys,  494 
Skeat  and  Blagden,  i 1 1 
Slate,  87,  446 

Slavery,  220-22;  abolition, 
208,  224-25 

Smyth,  H.  Warington,  68,  87, 

93.  13+,  4”.  465.  585 

Sobriety,  160 

Social  Organization,  214-36; 
Education  of  Royal  chil- 


dren, 214-15;  Ancient  Law 
of  Succession  revived,  216  ; 
Titles  of  Princes,  216; 
Precedence,  216;  Absolute 
Monarchy,  217;  Officials, 

218- 19;  Ministers,  Corps 
of  Royal  Pages,  219;  Crown 
Property  in  Hand,  219; 
Public  service  and  labour, 

219- 20;  Royal  Monopoly 
of  export  trade,  220 

Soils,  7,  8,  9,  10,  12,  87,  88 
“ Somdet  Chao  Fa,^’  one  of  the 
titles  given  to  children  of 
Royalty,  216 

“ Somdet  Chao  Phaya^’’  official 
title,  239 

Somdet  Phra  Chao  Rachkana  {see 
Chao  Kana  Tai),  chief  abbots 
controlling  ecclesiastical 
affairs,  493 

Songkla  (Sungkla),  Siamese 
name  of  Singora  {q.vl) 
Songkran  “ Festival,”  New 
Year,  522-24 

Sojtg  Nah,  long  thin  cylindrical 
drum,  461-62 

Songs,  468-69  ; see  also  under 
“ Singing  ” 

Soothsayers,  518,  522 
Southern  (or  Peninsular)  State 
Railway,  418,  423 
Southern  Siam,  6,  9-12,  iio 
Spices,  5,  53,  54,  55,  56,  321, 
600-3 

Spirit-worship,  123,  126,  132, 
>34.  >35.  >37,  >61,  163, 
165,  487.  53°-49 

Square  measure,  271,  608 
Sri  Sajanalaya  Sukhodaya,  see 
Sukhothai-Sawankalok 


INDEX 


633 


Sri  Thammarat  (Tammarat), 
see  Lakhon 

SriWijaya  or  Samarattha,  170, 
452 

Stamps,  Postage,  292 
Sta?tg  {S' tmtg  or  Satang),  one 
hundredth  part  of  a tkal, 
q.z’.,  266,  607 

Statistics: — Population,  108- 
109;  Post-office,  292  ; Im- 
ports, 383-85,  606;  Ex- 
ports, 386-92,  606;  Com- 
merce, 375-401  ; Shipping, 
384-86;  Rice,  388-90; 
Teak,  391  ; Tin,  395-96 
Stone  implements  (neolithic), 
98,  445 

Stone  inscriptions,  ancient, 
176,  177,  450 
Straits  Dollars,”  265 
String  Bands,  Mahon,  467 
Stringed  Instruments,  musical, 
465-66 

Stucco  moulding,  426,  428, 

4+7. 448 

Sugar-cane,  61,  173,  317-18, 

388,  393 

Sukhodaya,  see  Sukhothai 
Sukhothai  (Sukhodaya),  form- 
erly Haribunja,  31,  169, 

Sukhothai  - Sawankalok  (Sri 
Sajanalaya  Sukhodaya), 
ancient  kingdom  of,  i 2 i , 169, 
C4’ 

178,  179 

Superstitions,  64,  70,  95,  i 26, 

130,  C3T  135^  137.  HC 

161,  4/4-75, 

532,  538-49 

Suphan,  or  Tachin,  r.,  16 


Suphan  or  Suphanburi,  Cent. 
Siam,  formerly  Samarattha, 
Sri  Wijaya,  Nakhon  Chaisi 
(Nagara  Jaya  Si),  170,  452 
Suphanburi  or  Suphan,  N. 

Siam,  t.,  1 8 1,  182,  184 
Surao^Ti  Mohammedan  praying 
house,  1 1 5 

Survey  Department,  Royal, 
289 

Sutap,  mtn.,  13 
Suttra,  see  Phra  Sut,  480 
Suwarnabhumi,  ancient  proz\ 
and  t.,  1 70,  1 8 i 
Sword  {dah),  128,  132,  163, 
164 

Tabar,  t.,  10 

Tablets,  clay  {phra  phim, 
“stamped  god”),  stamped 
with  religious  emblems  and 
texts  deposited  by  pilgrims 
(i2th  centy.)  in  caves,  e.g. 
near  Trang,  45  i 
Tachin,  r,,  see  Suphan,  r. 
Tachin,  367 
Tagalas,  people  of  the  Philip- 
pine group,  103 
Takhe  (“  crocodile  ”),  name 
given  to  a large  stringed 
musical  instrument,  played 
with  a plectrum,  465-66 
Takoapa,  t.,  archaeological 
researches  and  inscriptions 
at,  450 

Taksila,  ancient  prov.  of  Suk- 
hothai-Sawankalok,  171 
Talaing,  see  Mons 
Talapat,  a monk’s  fan,  497 
“ Talapoin,”  a common  term 
for  monk  (from  Mon  “Tala 


INDEX 


634 

Khpoi”  or  ‘‘Tala  Poi”  = 
“Our  Master”),  497 
Tale  Sap  (inland  sea  or  lake) 
e.g.  at  Singora,  and  in 
Kambodia,  10,  13 
Talifu,  country  near  Yunnan, 

131 

Taldt-pdt,  a drum,  461 
Tanan,  see  Than  an 
Tanen  Taung  Gyi,  mtns.,  7 
Tanyaburi,  367 
Taphan  Hin,  r.,  18 
Taphon^  a drum,  461 
Ta  Th,  a propitiative  effigy 
used  in  spirit-worship,  547 
Tarakarn,  the  “ Recorder  of 
the  Law  Courts,”  2.80 
Tari,  see  Na7n  tan 
Tattooing,  157-58,  163,  222 
Tavoy,  r.,  and  prov.^  3, 
182,  183,  184,  188,  194, 
197,  198 

Tax,  Capitation,  257 
Taxation,  256-57 
Taxation,  incidence  of,  257 
Taxes,  257;  Land,  257;  Capi- 
tation, 257;  Fisheries,  257; 
Collection,  257  ; Cocoanut 
palm,  313  ; Sugar,  318 
Taypanom,  decorative  figures  of 
royally-clothed  postulants, 
436 

Teak,  mat  sak,  51,  348,  354- 
59,  390-91,  604;  Forests, 
355  ; Regulations,  355; 
Trade,  390-91  ; Exports, 

391 

Teapots,  Siamese,  373 
Technical  Schools,  232 
Telegraphs,  292-93 
Telingana,  natives  of,  5,  loi 


Temperature,  31-33 
Temple  Schools,  120,  149, 

229 

Temples,  446-47,  455-57, 

497-501,  see  also  Wat,  Phra~ 
bat,  etc. 

Tenasserim,  r.,  and  prov., 
3, 12, 187, 188, 199 
TVa  Nam,  lit.  “ Hold  Water  ” 
ceremony,  200,  524-25 
Tewada  (Thezvada),  an  order 
of  angels  (used  as  device  on 
coinage,  etc.),  265,  438, 
522,  523,  524,  539 
Thai,  (“Freeman”),  see  Siam- 
ese 

Thai  Yai  (Great  Thai),  see 
Ngiou 

Thanan  (tanan),  measure  of 
capacity,  a half  cocoanut- 
shell,  of  about  a quart,  271, 
608 

Thezvada,  see  Tezvada 
Thibeto-Burman  family,  102, 
104,  108 

Thompat,  silver  work,  “ Niello”- 
work  or  repousse  filled  in 
with  black  alloy,  originally 
at  Lakhon,  probably  intro- 
duced from  Pu,  modern 
deterioration  of,  435-36 
Thon,  a bottle-shaped  drum, 
462 

Thong  kham,  gold 
Thot  Khrathin  (“  Lay  - down 
cloth  ”)  festival,  at  presen- 
tation of  monastic  robes, 
506-10 

Thoung  Yin,  r.,  3 
Thread,  the  Sacred,  518,  519, 
534 


INDEX 


Thum,  a measure  of  time  (a 
night-hour  ”),  274 
Thilm,  marriage  money,  152 
Tical  {tikal)  or  Bat,  unit  of 
weight  and  currency,  270 
Ti  Kalpana  religious  endow- 
ments, 495 

Tiles,  ornamental,  373,  498, 

+99 

Timber,  21,  38,  44,  51,  58, 
61,  349-59-  374-75-  390- 
91  ; exports  of  valuable 
woods,  392 

Timber-milling,  374-75 
Time,  divisions  of,  272-74 
Time,  method  of  reckoning, 

.273-7+ 

Tin,  kk  icilat,  28,  92-93, 
361-64;  northern  extent, 
93  ; Southern,  361  ; statis- 
tics, 363  ; strata  {karang), 
363  ; method  of  working 
alluvial  {iJiueng  sa),  363; 
lode  {riiiiejig  slaan),  364; 
smelting,  364;  value  of 
product,  364  ; revenue,  364 
Tin  Mines,  5,  12,  28,  92, 
361-64;  Chinese  lessees, 
361  ; system  of  working, 
363  ; European  companies, 
363  ; of  Chalang,  5 ; Koh 
Samui,  5 ; Puket,  28,  92 
Ting  Pan  Yao,  a Yao  clan,  136 
Tinstone  (Cassiterite  or  Oxide 
of  Tin),  92 

Titles,  216-17;  Chao  Nat, 
Somdet  Chao  Fa,  Bhra  Ong 
Chao,  Chao  Fa,  Mom  or 
Mon  Chao,  Mom  or  Mon 
Racha  Wongs,  Mom  or  Mon 
Luang,  official,  Krom  Phra, 


635 

Krom  Luang,  Krom  Khun, 
Krom  Mun  (y.rc) 

Ti  Torani  Song,  Church  endow- 
ments from  lands,  495 
Tobacco,  ton  ya  sup,  50,  127, 
317-18 

Toh  he  {tiikkli),  gecko  lizard, 

76,  597 

Tomoh,  r.  and  valley,  a gold- 
washing centre,  91 
“Tonal”  articulation,  557-58 
Tongkah,  see  Puket 
Ton  khao,  adult  rice 
Tonsure  Ceremony  {Chulakan- 
t am  an  gala  or  Kan  Tat  chuk), 
1+9,517-21 

“Top -knot  Cutting,”  see 
Tonsure  Ceremony 
Topographical  Survey,  289 
Towns,  21-31 
Trade,  376-401 
Trade  routes,  14-15,31  ; used 
by  Portuguese,  Dutch,  En- 
glish, and  Chinese,  189-90 

Traders,  early  foreign,  190  ; 
Arabs,  28,  29  ; settlements, 
Portuguese,  Dutch,  English, 
190  ; French,  192 
Traditions,  Kache,  124,  126; 
Karien,  107  ; Tawa,  121  ; 
Muhso,  1 30;  racial,  100, 
107 

Training  Colleges,  231,  232 
Trai  Phhm  or  “ Three  Places” 
(Buddhist),  Earth,  Hea- 
ven, and  He]],  483-85 
Trai  Titok  or  Tidok,  the  “Three 
Baskets,”  the  Buddhist 
Scriptures,  479-80,  495 
Trang,  A,  415,  451 


636 


INDEX 


Transport,  401-23,  504,  509 
Trapping,  see  Hunting 
Traps,  see  Hunting  and  Trap- 
ping 

Treasury  Department,  263 
Treasury  Drafts,  State,  263 
Treaties,  2,  3,  191,  203,  205, 
206,  207,  212,  242,  379, 
380,  381 

Tree,  the  Sacred  (‘‘Bo”  or 
“Boh”),  Ficus  religlosa,  54, 
478,  499 

Trees,  see  Flora  also  Forests 
Tribes  and  Races,  102-66 
Tribute,  Royal,  220 
Tungsten  (Wolfram),  96 

Uan^  a deep  sea  net,  330 
prov.  and  /,,  31 
Udorn, and  9 
Ujong  Salang,  h.,  see  Chalang 
Uloka  Kumara  (lit.  : “Dawn 
of  Freedom  ”),  Viceroy  of 
Haribunja,  169,  174 
Urn,  see  thum,  274 
Umbrella,  the  Sacred  {hti), 
512 

Vnalom,  phi  (or  spirit)  charms, 

5+7 

United  States  of  America, 
203,  206,  379,  380 
Units, 271,608;  capacity^ 
271,  608;  cubic,  272,  608  ; 
length,  271,  607;  zv eight, 
269,  608 

Upali,  a disciple  of  Buddha, 
wrote  the  “ Rules  of  the 
Order  ” (Thra  IJ^inai,  Vin- 
aya”),  480 

Uparach  or  IVang  Nah,  Heir 
Apparent,  204 


Urns,  cinerary,  156 
Utaradit,  415 

Vaam,  see  Ram 

Vajirayana  Library,  the  Royal, 

575-76 

Vegetables,  147,  321 
Victoria  Point,  2,  10 
“ Vinaya,”  see  Thra  Winai 
Viols,  Siamese,  ^azjc  Thai,  Sazv 
Sa?n  Sai,  Sazv  Duang,  Sazv  U, 
466 

Vishnu  (Phra  Narai),  452 
Vishnuloka,  see  Phitsanulok 
Volcanoes,  87,  89 

Wa,  tribe,  123 

Wa  (zvah),  measure  of  length, 
a fathom,  271,  607 
Wallace,  A.  R.,  63,  103,  444 
Wang  Nah,  see  Uparach 
War  Office,  Ministry  ofWar 
Wars,  Burmese,  170,  177, 

18+,  185,  187,  188,  189, 

194. 195.  >96,  197, 198; 

Kambodian,  183,  184,  187, 
204  ; internecine,  177,  178, 
179,  181,  182,  183,  184, 

193.  203 

Wasan,  the  rainy  season,  also  a 
period  of  fasting  and  med- 
itation, the  Buddhist  Lent, 
489,  506 

Wat,  temple,  497-501  ; Ben- 
chamabophit,  515;  Chang, 
439;  Chinneraj,  Thra 

I{eo,y^c)  ; ThraTrang,  448  ; 
Sri  Sazvai,  448  ; Tepsirundr, 
227 

“ Wat  Luang^"'  temples  with 
royal  endowments,  507,  509 


INDEX 


637 


Water-buffalo,  313 
Water-drinking  ” ceremony, 
see  Teu  Nam 

Water- pouring  ceremonies, 
520,  521,  522-24 
Water  Supply,  25,  277 
Water,  the  “Holding  water” 
ceremony,  200,  524-25 
Waterways  and  Boats,  402-13 
Waterworks,  277-78 
Wattana  Hills,  18 
Weapons,  native,  112,  128, 

132,  137.  163,  165;  modern, 
2 + 7 

Weaving  and  Embroidery, 
440-41  ; Silk-weaving  at 
Korat  and  Chieng  Mai,  441 
Weights  and  Measures,  269- 
72,  607-8 

Wen,  labour  gangs,  221 
Wet  season,  i 7 
“ White  [really  albino]  Ele- 
phant ” {Chang  Theuak) 
ceremony,  526-27 
“White  Elephant”  Ensign, 
I 14  ; Order  of,  226  ; Ven- 
eration of,  526-27 
Wieng,  a fortihed  place,  2 i 

Wieng  Chan,  19,  105,  158, 
167,  186,  188,  194,  203, 
204,  209 

Wihan,  image  houses,  in  zvat, 

+99 

W'lnati  (measure  of  time),  a 
second,  274 

Wind  Instruments,  musical, 
I 12,  133,  161-62,  464-65 
Witchcraft,  123,  137,  147- 
48,  161,  166,  487,  538-40 
Wolfram  (Tungsten),  96 


Women,  social  position  of, 
277;  education  of,  231, 

23  + 

Wood  - carving,  161,  429; 

teak,  429  ; temple  dec- 
orations, 429  ; best  by 
Northern  Lao,  429 
Wood-oils,  40,  128,  351 
Works  Department,  293-94 

Xylophone  or  Harmonica, 
ran  at,  463 

Yala,  t.  and prov,  (Mai.  Jala  or 
Jalor),  95 

Yam  nilng  (measure  of  time), 
the  first  watch,  9 p.m.— 
12  midnight,  274 
7'am  rung  (measure  of  time), 
fourth  w^atch,  6-9  a.m.,  274 
7' am  vung,  see  Tam  rung 
Yang-Tse  Valley,  105 
Yao  or  Yao-yin,  tribe,  108, 

136-37 

Year  (Siamese),  273 
“Yellow-robe”  (of  monks), 
496 

Ti  ^y,  drama,  472-73 
Tok,  cubic  measure,  used  in 
the  teak  trade,  272,  608 
Tokrabat,  the  Official  Prose- 
cutor of  the  Law  Courts, 
280 

Tom,  a monk’s  attendant,  493 
Youth,  character  of,  235  ; 
ceremonials  of,  see  adoles- 
cence 

Yuan  or  xA^nnamese,  7'^(rr,  100, 
108,  I 20 

Zinc,  96 


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GETTY  RESEARCH  INSTITUTE 


3 3125  01235  6750 


